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THE   INCREASED   PRODUCTIVITY    SERIES 
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THE    MANUAL  OF   MANURES 


THE  MANUAL  OF 
MANURES 


BY 

HENRY   VENDELMANS 

ING.   AGRI,  (bELGIQUE) 


LONDON : 

PUBLISHED  AT  THE  OFFICES  OF  "COUNTRY  LIFE," 
20,  TAVISTOCK  STREET,  COVENT  GARDEN,  W.C,  AND  BY 
GEORGE  NEWNES,  LTD.,  8-11,  SOUTHAMPTON  STREET. 
STRAND,    W.C,     NEW   YORK:  CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 

MCMXVI 


r 


^■lA 


PREFATORIAL    NOTE 

This  little  book  was  projected  in  order  to  help 
those  engaged  in  cultivating  the  soil  to  increase 
their  returns.  It  will  tell  little  to  the  highly 
successful  grower.  The  other  day  one  who  probably 
sends  more  food  stuffs  to  market  than  anybody  else 
in  Great  Britain,  told  me  his  account  with  a  single 
firm  of  chemical  manure  manufacturers  averaged 
about  £8000  annually,  and  he  never  lays  out  money 
without  seeing  how  he  will  get  it  back.  There  is 
no  reason  why  every  one  who  cultivates  the  tiniest 
garden  plot  should  not  share  in  his  knowledge  and 
its  advantages.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  book  to  enable 
him  to  achieve  this.  Mr.  Vendelmans,  the  author, 
writes  not  only  from  "the  book,"  but  from  his 
experience  as  a  highly  successful  cultivator.  In 
simple  terms  that  he  who  runs  may  read  he  has 
described  the  nature  and  constitution  of  manures 
of  every  type,  explaining  the  manner  of  their  appli- 
cation and  to  what  crops  and  at  what  seasons  of  the 
year.  Any  one  who  habitually  uses  the  volume  for 
reference  and  advice  will,  if  he  be  working  for  a 
livelihood,  be  enabled  to  add  to  his  gains.  If  an 
amateur,  he  will  have  the  satisfaction  of  an  abundant 

ix 


337885 


Prefatorial  Note 

and  first-class  crop  instead  of  only  a  moderate  one. 
Within  brief  compass  the  fruits  are  given  of  long 
study  and  experience  of  practical  growing.  It  is 
intended  to  supplement  this  manual  with  another 
book  to  be  called  "  Exportation  and  Restitution  " — 
the  aim  of  which  will  be  to  show  exactly  what  each 
crop  takes  away  from  the  soil  and  what  therefore 
the  grower  should  put  back  in  the  shape  of  manure. 
The  two  together  will  form  an  invaluable  help  to 
cultivation. 

In  conclusion  let  me  quote  what  was  so  well  said 
in  a  notice  recently  issued  from  the  Board  of  Agri- 
culture and  Fisheries,  "Lord  Selborne  confidently 
hopes  that  farmers  will  this  year  greatly  increase 
their  demands  for  fertilisers  of  all  descriptions,  so 
as  to  stimulate  as  far  as  practicable  the  production 
from  the  land,  and  thus  reduce  the  importation  of 
foodstuffs."  The  wise  reader,  however,  will  add 
after  "this  year"  three  more  words  "and  every 
year." 

P.  A.  G. 


CONTENTS 


HAP 

PAGE 

I. 

Introduction i 

U. 

Manures  in  General 

The  Necessity  of  Manures        , 

Fertile  Land 

Exportation  .... 

Restitution    .... 

Importation  .         . 

Improvements 

The  Law  of  the  Minimum 

Possibilities  of  the  Soil  . 

The  Selection  of  Manures 

•  • 

•  ■ 

•  t 
• 

>                 • 

« 
• 

5-3 1 

5 

6 

7 
8 
8 
9 
9 
II 

12 

Simple  Manures  and  Compour 

id  Manures 

.       13 

The  Richest  Manures     , 

•         • 

.       17 

Assimilability        . 

•         • 

.      19 

Solubility     .         .         , 

»         • 

20 

Fineness        .         .         . 

t         * 

22 

Adulteration  of  Manures 

»         • 

.      26 

Acid,  Base  and  Neutral 

•        • 

•      30 

The  Functions  of  Manures 

t         • 

.      30 

[II. 

Nitrogenous  Chemical  Manures  . 

32-44 

Nitrate  of  Soda     «... 

•   33 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia     . 

.   39 

Lime  Nitrogen       «... 

.     .   41 

Nitrate  of  Lime     , 

•         • 

.       43 

XI 


Contents 

CHAP.                                                                                                                                                          PAGB 

IV.    Phosphatic  Manures 45-68 

Phosphates  in  General 

.       45 

Mineral  Phosphates 

.      47 

Assimilable  Phosphates 

,      48 

Superphosphates    . 

.      49 

Bone  Manures 

S3 

Bone  Ashes  . 

.      59 

Precipitated  Phosphate 

59 

Basic  Slag     . 

,      60 

Basic  Superphosphate 

66 

Coproliths     . 

.      67 

V.    PoTAssic  Manures 

i 

69-81 

Potassic  Manures  in  General 

.       69 

The  Occurrence  and  Function  of  Potash  i 

n  the 

Soil 

.      69 

Forms  in  which  Potash  is  found       , 

•      70 

Manurial  Attributes  of  Potash 

.      72 

Properties  of  Potash 

.      73 

Kainite 

■      74 

Carnallite 

76 

Sylvinite 

.      76 

Chloride  or  Muriate  of  Potash 

76 

Sulphate  of  Potash 

78 

Nitrate  of  Potash  .         . 

.      79 

Carbonate  of  Potash 

80 

Potash  Manure  Salts 

81 

Yolk 

81 

VI,    Ashes  and  Soot     , 

82-86 

Ashes  . 

.      82 

Wood  Ashes 

83 

Washed  Cinders 

84 

Bone  Ash 

84 

Ashes  of  Peat 

84 

Coal  Ashes   . 

85 

Ashes  of  Heather,  Furze,  and  Bracken 

85 

Soot              •         .        .         .         . 

86 

X 

ii 

Contents 


CHAP, 

VII,    Magnesia  and  Silica      .        .        . 
Magnesia      .         .         .         •         . 

VIII,  Organic  Manures  .... 
Need  to  ascertain  their  relative  value 
Green  Manure  .... 
Farmyard  Manure  ,         .         .         • 

Litter 

Variation  in  Value  and  its  Causes    . 

Keeping  and  Management  of  the  Dung  Heap 

Carting,  Spreading,  and  Top  Dressing 

Means  of  Preventing  Loss 

Mixed  Manures      .         . 

Urine  . 

Guano 

Fish  Guano 

Bat  Guano 

Blood  . 

Dried  Blood 

Pigeon  and  Poultry  Dung 

Town  Refuse 

Sewage         .         . 

Seaweed        .        . 

Leather  Waste       .         . 

Refuse  of  Skins     .         . 

Nitrogen       .         .         • 

IX.    Improvements 

Improvements  in  General 
Calcareous  Improvements 
Lime   .... 
Ground  Lime        t         t 
Gas  Lime     .         . 
Slag  from  Sugar  Manufacture 
xiii 


PAGE 

87-88 
.  87 
.      88 

89-124 
89 
90 
92 
93 

94 
96 

98 

98 

ICX) 

102 
106 
no 

114 

116 
118 
118 
119 
120 
122 
122 
123 

125-148 
125 
126 
129 

136 

138 

140 


Contents 

CHAP.  rAGB 

IX.    Improvements  {continued) 

Shells 141 

Gypsum        ,..»....  141 

Chalk  .,...•.,.  143 

Humus  ••••••*•  146 

X.    AuxiMONES 149-152 

Quantities  of  Manures  which  may  be  used  to 
THE  Acre 153 

Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  1906         .     155 


XIV 


XVI 


THE 

MANUAL  OF  MANURES 

CHAPTER   I 
Introduction 

The  question  of  manures  is  of  paramount  importance 
to-day,  and  unfortunately  it  is  not  very  well  under- 
stood ;  yet  on  its  comprehension  depends  the  future 
of  agriculture  on  which,  as  the  great  war  has  shown, 
our  existence  as  a  nation  must  depend. 

To  be  in  a  position  to  pay  the  high  wages 
demanded  in  these  times  of  scarcity  of  labour,  the 
farmer  must  modernise  his  methods.  And  if,  on  the 
one  hand,  he  tries  to  reduce  the  cost  of  cultivation 
by  the  use  of  labour-saving  machinery,  he  ought, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  increase  his  profits  by  the 
employment  of  artificial  manures,  as  well  as  that  of 
the  farmyard. 

But  manures  increase  productiveness  only  when 
they  are  intelligently  and  judiciously  used.  It  is 
of  no  use  to  apply  a  lot  of  manure  when  the  increase 
in  production  is  worth  less  than  the  price  of  that 
manure.  It  is  useless  to  spend  a  great  deal  of 
money  on  artificial  manures,  if  they  are  applied  at 
seasons  when  they  will  be  washed  away  in  the 
drainage.  If  they  are  applied  to  crops  which 
cannot  profit  economically  by  them,  not  given  in  the 

1  B 


Introduction 

right  proportions,  or  with  the  right  kinds  in  associa- 
tion, or,  above  all,  if  by  buying  without  knowledge 
the  usual  price  is  paid  for  inferior  products,  a  loss 
is  entailed  at  the  starting  point. 

Whatever  the  method  of  cultivation  may  be,  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  results  obtained  will 
depend  chiefly  on  the  influence  of  manure.  Other 
conditions  being  equal,  the  difference  in  results 
ought  to  be  attributed  entirely  to  the  manures,  and 
this  difference  is  sometimes  enormous. 

In  some  cases  proper  manuring  may  mean  a  two- 
fold increase  ;  in  others  it  will  enable  us  to  cultivate 
soils  which  otherwise  could  not  have  been  touched. 

We  know,  too,  that  between  the  price  of  manures 
and  the  extra  value  of  crops  obtained,  thanks  to  their 
use,  there  is  a  large  margin  of  profit ;  but  this  profit 
ought  to  be  derived  from  the  judicious  use  of  these 
manures,  and  to  be  able  to  utihse  them  judiciously 
we  must  understand  them. 

There  are  actually  on  the  market  such  a  variety 
of  artificial  manures,  and  they  are  introduced  with  so 
much  skill,  that  it  is  very  easy  to  be  led  astray 
as  to  their  value  and  the  use  one  should  make  of 
them.  It  is  not  wisdom  either,  on  the  part  of 
the  buyer,  to  rely  solely  and  completely  on  the 
seller  for  advice  as  to  what  is  useful  or  necessary 
for  his  purpose.  He  ought  to  know  and  be  able  to 
judge  for  himself. 

"  A  Manual  of  Manures  "  will  be  not  only  useful, 
but  essential  to  the  farmer,  and  he  ought  always  to 
keep  it  handy. 

He  ought  to  know  what  elements  these  manures 
bring  to  the  soil,  under  what  forms,  and  in  what 

2 


Introduction 

proportions.  He  ought  to  know  what  kinds  of 
manure  he  should  employ  and  to  be  able  to  calculate 
the  quantities  that  should  be  applied  to  various  crops 
and  the  seasons  favourable  for  their  application,  so 
that  they  will  be  most  profitable  to  the  plants  for 
which  they  are  intended,  and  not  be  merely  washed 
away. 

He  ought  to  know  what  manures  can  be  com- 
bined without  fear  of  loss  ;  how  to  store  them  for 
a  length  of  time  without  appreciable  loss  ;  how 
to  fix  their  value  on  the  basis  of  the  units  of  the 
fertilising  elements  which  they  contain,  and  the 
more  or  less  favourable  form  in  which  these  elements 
are  present.  He  must  not  blindly  believe  in  the 
virtue  of  manures,  or  listen  to  advertising  recom- 
mendations. He  must  demand  a  written  guarantee 
of  the  number  of  units  of  fertilising  matter  and  the 
forms  in  which  they  are  presented,  confirming  these 
facts  by  analyses,  so  as  to  pay  a  price,  based  on  the 
price  of  the  day,  corresponding  to  these  units.  He 
ought  to  know  the  principal  adulterations  to  which 
these  manures  are  liable,  so  as  to  be  forewarned, 
and  exercise  care  so  as  to  buy  well  and  cheaply. 

Knowledge  of  the  subject  will  prevent  him  from 
paying  too  much  for  some  manures  much  in  demand, 
which  for  this  reason  alone  have  attained  a  price 
much  beyond  their  real  value. 

Finally,  he  ought  to  be  able  to  account  to  him- 
self for  the  produce  which  he  has  obtained  per 
unit  of  fertilising  matter  at  the  most  advantageous 
price  at  the  farni,  not  forgetting  the  price  of 
transport,  which,  in  the  poorest  manures,  will  be 
proportionally  higher  to  the  unit. 

3 


Introduction 

All  this  knowledge  is  necessary  to  enable  the 
farmer  to  handle  manures,  and  having  it,  he  should 
be  able  to  estimate  the  exact  results  obtainable 
instead  of  only  waiting  to  see  what  will  come  of  the 
employment  of  haphazard  methods. 

It  is  from  lack  of  knowledge  that  many  people 
are  obliged  to  resort  to  compound  manures  and 
mixtures  of  all  sorts,  in  which  the  unit  of  fertilising 
matter  is  always  sold  at  too  high  a  price,  a  price  often 
comparable  to  that  of  the  "  Aqua  Pompae "  of 
old  apothecaries,  or  the  alcohol  in  sedative  waters. 

We  shall  say  something  on  the  subject  of  farm- 
yard manure,  its  formation,  its  preservation,  and 
its  employment,  and  we  should  like  to  call  attention 
to  the  enormous  waste  of  it  which  takes  place. 

We  shall  make  allusion  also  to  green  manures, 
without  dwelling  on  them,  however,  in  order  not  to 
increase  the  size  of  the  book. 

Not  only  farmers,  but  every  one  who  possesses 
land  or  even  a  garden  ought  to  learn  about  manures, 
especially,  we  think,  teachers  in  country  schools,  both 
male  and  female. 

We  have  intentionally  put  on  one  side  everything 
that  is  difficult  in  the  subject,  and  everything  that 
could  impede  easy  comprehension.  The  few  unusual 
terms  employed  will  be  explained  in  a  way  to  make 
them  quite  intelligible. 

It  is  the  popularisation  of  the  knowledge  of 
manures  on  which  we  are  intent,  convinced  that 
in  this  direction  we  can  be  of  some  service. 


CHAPTER  II 

Manures  in  General 

The  Necessity  of  Manures. 

Plants,  like  all  living  things,  require  that  ten 
elements  should  be  put  at  their  disposal  under 
fixed  conditions,  but  to  give  crops  they  do  not 
require  equal  quantities  of  each  of  these  elements. 
They  show  a  greater  need  for  some  than  for 
others. 

Thus,  among  these  ten  necessary  elements, 
seven  are  generally  found  in  sufficient  quantities  in 
the  soil  and  in  the  air. 

They  are  Hydrogen  [H],  Oxygen  [O],  Carbon  [C], 
Calcium  [Ca],  Magnesia  [Mg],  Iron  [Fe],  and 
Sulphur  [S]. 

Three  others  exist  universally  and  generally,  in 
insufficient  quantities  to  give  good  crops,  and  plants 
require  them  in  relatively  large  quantities.  They 
are  Phosphor  [P],  Nitrogen  [N],  and  Potash  [K]. 
These  are  the  elements  which  are  universally  regarded 
as  manures.  In  certain  cases  the  magnesia  and 
calcium  associated  with  these  manures  have  also 
given  favourable  results,  which  seems  to  prove  that 
in  these  particular  cases  there  was  too  little  magnesia 
and  calcium  in  the  soil,  and  that  therefore  they  also 


Manures  in  General 

became  manures.  But  these  elements  are  present 
in  many  manures  besides,  without  being  counted  as 
such  themselves.  The  movement  which  has  been 
attempted  in  the  agricultural  world  to  popularise 
the  use  of  magnesium  as  manure  can  perhaps  be 
considered  as  coming  from  an  interested  source, 
desirous  of  raising  the  price  of  certain  manures  by 
the  value  attributed  to  magnesium  (Stasfurt  salts  of 
potash)* 

Lime  applied  separately  ought  to  be  regarded 
as  an  improvement,  and  it  is  for  this  purpose  and 
to  this  end  that  it  is  especially  applied  to  the  soil. 
It  has  been  noticed,  however,  that  the  simple 
application  of  lime  has  been  sufficient  to  render 
certain  soils  fertile.  It  is  apparently  true  that 
magnesia  will  constitute  a  manure  in  future  time 
if  the  soil  is  not  regularly  reinforced. 

Manure,  then,  is  all  matter  applied  to  the  soil 
for  the  purpose  of  augmenting  the  quantity  of 
plant  food  utihsable  by  the  crops.  The  necessity 
for  artificial  manures  need  no  longer  be  discussed. 
It  has  been  a  recognised  fact  for  so  long,  and  to  such 
an  extent,  that  any  one  who  does  not  employ  them 
can  only  be  regarded  as  retrogressive. 

Fertile  Land. 

By  fertile  land  we  mean  that  which  contains 
in  a  form  relatively  assimilable,  and  in  addition 
to  a  certain  quantity  of  humus,  up  to  a  thousand 
of  the  chief  fertilising  elements.  One  might  say 
that  Western  Europe  contains  practically  no  fertile 
land.  The  crops  raised  there  for  many  ages  have 
taken    the   fertilising   elements   from    the    soil    in 

6 


Exportation 

ever  increasing  quantities,  and  they  have  not 
been  restored  completely  by  farmyard  manure. 
Therefore  it  is  necessary  to  import  them. 

Exportation. 

A  more  or  less  important  part  of  the  crops  pro- 
duced on  the  farm  does  not  return  to  the  soil — thus 
a  portion  of  the  wheat,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  etc., 
grown  is  sold  as  such.  These  cereals  and  roots 
contain  nitrogen,  phosphates,  potash,  and  lime 
extracted  from  the  soil  by  the  plants.  Therefore 
the  total  quantity  of  fertilising  elements  which  these 
products  contain  are  taken  from  the  farm. 

Hay  and  straw  are  also  sold  sometimes,  and  all 
this  represents  an  exportation  of  fertilising  matter. 
On  dairy  and  breeding  farms  the  crops  obtained  are 
consumed  on  the  spot.  But  then  they  are  exported 
in  the  animals  sold — in  the  shape  of  meat,  skins  and 
blood,  bones,  or  in  the  sale  of  milk — and,  further, 
there  is  the  loss  in  fertilising  matter  between  the 
consumption  of  produce  by  the  animal  and  its 
restoration  in  the  form  of  manure.  These  losses 
which  are  considerable,  as  we  shall  see  further  on, 
especially  in  nitrogen  and  potash,  are  caused  by 
exposure  to  air,  by  fermentation,  by  dilution,  by 
rain  water,  and  by  the  loss  of  urine.  The  loss  of 
fertilising  elements  in  the  air  and  by  drainage  is 
considerable.  Those  in  the  drains  are  carried  to  the 
sea  and  irretrievably  lost. 

All  these  depletions,  by  sale  and  loss,  going  on 
practically  for  hundreds  of  years  on  some  soils, 
have  ended  by  impoverishing  them  to  a  point  where 
the  usual  restitution  is  not  sufficient  to  maintain 


Manures  in  General 

their  fertility,  and  sometimes  even  to  the  point  of 
ruining  the  land. 

Restitution. 

It  is  necessary  to  give  back  to  the  soil  those 
fertilising  elements  which  the  crops  have  taken  from 
it,  and  of  which  there  are  not  enough  reserves  in  the 
soils,  in  the  form  of  manure. 

This  is  usually  done  by  means  of  farmyard 
manure.  But,  even  under  the  most  favourable  con- 
ditions of  formation  and  preservation,  farmyard 
manure  contains  and  gives  back  far  less  than  the 
total  quantity  of  the  elements  which  the  crops  have 
taken  from  the  ground,  and  so  the  latter  is  incapable 
of  maintaining  its  fertility.  Besides,  simple  restitu- 
tion, even  when  complete,  is  no  longer  sufficient 
for  our  progressive  agriculture.  We  want  to  get 
very  large  crops  very  economically.  To  supply 
the  deficit  of  the  ordinary  restitution,  and  to 
increase  the  productivity  of  the  soil  we  must  have 
recourse  to 

Importation. 

This  means  that  we  must  turn  to  outside  ferti- 
lising matters  to  restore  or  retain  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  and  to  increase  its  capacity.  This  importation 
is  usually  made  in  two  different  ways  : 

1.  By  concentrated  foods  (cake,  meal,  etc.)  which 
are  given  to  the  cattle. 

2.  By  bought  manures.  This  second  way  is 
preferable  because  it  is  more  economical. 

From  the  manurial  point  of  view  the  first  way  is 
not  advisable  because  the  units  of  nutritive  matter, 

8 


The  Law  of  the  Minimum 

which  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  manure,  but  in 
another  form,  are  dearer  than  those  in  the  manure. 
This  means  converting  a  product  of  higher  value 
into  one  of  lower  value  without  counting  the  losses 
which  arise  in  the  process  of  transformation. 

Improvements. 

All  modifications  applied  to  the  soil,  whether 
physical,  physiological  or  chemical,  are  classed  as 
improvements,  which,  without  being  regarded  as 
manures,  help  to  ameliorate  and  correct  the  soil 
from  an  agricultural  point  of  view.  These  improve- 
ments are  practically  as  necessary  as  the  manures. 

Thus  certain  soils,  poor  in  fertilising  elements, 
have  gradually  lost  their  humus  as  well,  because  of  an 
insufficient  supply  of  farmyard  manure.  Cultural 
operations,  aided  by  bacteriological  influence,  and 
natural  oxydisation  stimulated  in  most  cases  by 
the  use  of  lime,  have  impoverished  the  soil  in 
humus  to  such  a  degree  that  chemical  manures  alone 
cannot  make  it  fertile.  Humus  is  of  great  import- 
ance. Indeed,  it  is  of  such  absolute  necessity  to 
the  soil  that  it  must  be  considered  as  seriously  as 
manures.  It  does  not  constitute  a  manure  in  itself, 
but  soil  in  which  it  is  lacking  is  practically  sterile,  and 
it  is  chiefly  in  these  soils  that  green  manures  are  of 
the  greatest  service. 

The  Law  of  the  Minimum. 

The  importation  of  manure  is  regulated  by  the 
Law  of  the  Minimum.  In  point  of  fact,  the  crops 
are  proportionate — all  conditions  being  equal — to 
the  amount  of  manure  that  the  soil  contains  in  the 

9 


Manures  in  General 

least  quantity.  For  to  obtain  the  whole  of  the 
effect  of  the  given  manure,  the  other  manures  must 
be  present  in  the  soil  in  the  right  proportions.  If 
any  one  manure  is  lacking,  the  addition  of  other 
manures,  no  matter  in  what  quantity,  will  be 
incapable  of  increasing  the  productivity. 

Let  us  make  this  clear  by  means  of  an  example. 


Imagine  any  kind  of  crop.  The  liquid  in  the 
tub  illustrated  represents  the  crop.  The  tub  full 
represents  the  capacity  of  the  soil.  The  planks  of 
the  tub  represent  the  manures.  The  planks  are  of 
different  sizes,  because  different  quantities  of  each 
manure  are  required  ;  but  the  height  represents  the 
proportions,  which  ought  to  be  equal.  The  plank  of 
nitrogen  [N]  is  of  the  necessary  height,  but  the  planks 
of  potash  [K2O]  and  phosphoric  acid  [P2O5]  are 
too  low,  the  plank  of  P2O5  coming  higher  than  that 
of  K20-  The  quantity  of  KgO,  represented  by  the 
size  of  the  plank,  is,  however,  larger  than  the  quantity 
of  P2O5  present  and  of  nitrogen  [N]  necessary.  The 
proportion  of  these  elements,  therefore,  is  not 
good. 


10 


Possibilities  of  the  Soil 

Now,  in  order  to  increase  the  crop,  it  will  be  of 
no  use  to  raise  the  nitrogen  plank,  or  the  height  of 
the  water  in  the  tub,  because  the  crop  is  regulated 
by  the  height  of  the  plank  of  K2O.  But,  raise  the 
plank  of  K2O  and  immediately  the  crop  will  be 
increased  in  proportion  to  that  rise.  Adding  to 
the  plank  of  nitrogen  would  not  increase  the  crop 
at  all.  One  would  merely  have  spent  money  use- 
lessly. 

But  from  the  moment  that  the  plank  of  KoO 
has  passed  the  plank  of  P2O5,  the  increase  of  K2O, 
as  far  as  the  level  of  the  capacity  of  the  soil  will 
not  further  increase  the  crop,  because  the  P2O5 
is  not  in  the  requisite  proportion.  This  plank  also 
must  be  raised  to  the  height  of  the  capacity  of  the 
soil.  It  is  at  this  stage  that  the  best  results  can  be 
expected  under  the  given  conditions.  It  is  the  strict 
application  of  the  Law  of  the  Minimum  which  enables 
us  to  put  waste  lands  into  cultivation  economi- 
cally. 

Each  kind  of  crop  has  different  needs  and  demands 
different  quantities  of  manure.  Therefore,  knowing 
the  requirements  of  a  crop  and  the  elements  which  are 
lacking  in  the  soil,  one  can  easily  determine  the  re- 
spective quantities  of  the  various  manures  to  use, 
and  give  them  in  the  necessary  quantities  when  the 
requisite  proportions  have  been  decided.  But  there 
is  a  limit  to  the 

Possibilities  of  the  Soil. 

Manures  cannot  be  apphed  indefinitely  in  the 
hope  of  getting  a  corresponding  increase  in  crops. 
In  spite  of  using  good  proportions,  there  would  come 

n 


Manures  in  General 

a  time  when  an  increase  of  manure  would  not  give 
a  similar  increase  of  production,  and  the  practical 
limit  is  when  the  addition  of  manure  ceases  to  give 
good  extra  value  in  the  produce.  In  reality  one 
would  never  push  the  practice  as  far  as  the  point 
where  the  production  did  not  do  more  than  pay  for 
the  manures,  though  in  theory  it  can  sometimes  be 
justified — say  by  the  production  of  the  most  nourish- 
ment on  a  given  site,  thus  making  a  larger  head  of 
stock  possible. 

It  is  often  written  and  more  often  said  that 
"  basic  slag  or  superphosphate  "  (of  good  quality,  be 
it  understood)  "  do  not  answer."  Such  a  statement 
proves  that  the  manure  has  not  been  given  a  sufficient 
trial,  and,  moreover,  that  the  experimenter  is  not 
familiar  with  the  use  of  chemical  manures.  One 
thing  is  certain.  The  soil  lacks  phosphoric  acid  : 
the  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  too  rare  to  make  one 
believe  anything  to  the  contrary.  If  basic  slag 
and  superphosphates  do  not  respond,  it  means  that 
they  have  not  been  given  their  proper  complement — 
they  cannot  respond.  They  must  be  given  in 
combination  with  potash  or  nitrogen,  sometimes 
with  both,  and  then  they  will  answer.  The  Law  of 
the  Minimum  must  be  satisfied. 

The  Selection  of  Manures. 

It  only  remains  to  decide  what  manures  must  be 
used  to  bring  their  importation  to  the  utmost  limit 
of  economic  possibilities.  There  are  in  commerce 
such  a  quantity  and  variety  of  artificial  and  chemical 
manures,  that  there  is  some  difficulty  in  choosing. 
They  may  be  divided  into — 

12 


Simple  Manures 

Simple  Manures  and  Compound  Manures. 

The  simple  manures  contain  only  one  fertilising 
element,  the  compound  manures  more  than  one. 
Among  compound  manures  there  are  some  which 
are  naturally  compound,  that  is  which  contain 
more  than  one  fertiUsing  element  in  the  matter  of 
which  they  are  made  ;  for  example,  guano,  bones, 
etc.,  and  others  which  are  compounded  mechanically, 
that  is  by  mixing  two  or  more  manures,  such  as 
fish  guano  and  leather  waste  ;  by  mixing  natural 
compound  manures  and  simple  manures  (fish  guano 
and  sulphate  of  ammonia)  ;  by  mixing  simple 
manures,  kainite,  and  basic  slag,  or  by  mixing  simple 
or  compound  manures  with  neutral  matter  (sawdust 
or  sand),  for  example. 

Generally  speaking,  preference  should  be  given 
to  simple  manures  for  the  following  reasons. 

1st.  The  first  and  more  important  reason  is 
that  simple  manures  are  generally,  or  one  might 
say  always,  cheaper  by  the  unit  than  compound 
manures.  They  can  be  obtained  practically  direct 
from  their  source,  so  that  their  purchase  lies  between 
the  producer  and  the  consumer  only.  There  is  no 
middle  man,  no  handling  and  no  useless  transport. 

2nd.  They  are  easily  used ;  only  containing 
one  fertilising  element  one  can  calculate  exactly 
the  quantity  of  each  variety  required.  As  much  as 
is  necessary  of  any  determined  element  can  be  given 
independent  of  the  quantities  of  other  manures. 
With  compound  manures  this  is  scarcely  possible, 
because  they  will  not  contain  the  proportion  of 
elements  suitable  to  a  given  soil. 

13 


Manures  in  General 

3rd.  Different  manures  require  to  be  used  at 
different  depths  in  the  soil.  For  example,  it  is  not 
good  to  plough  or  harrow  in  Chili  nitrate,  while 
slag  or  kainite  generally  require  to  be  well  incor- 
porated with  arable  soil.  Hence  one  can  easily 
use  simple  manures  at  the  depth  which  suits  them 
best,  whilst  in  using  compound  manures  this  is  not 
possible.  Being  mixed,  some  will  be  too  deep, 
and  others  not  deep  enough. 

4th.  Different  manures  need  to  be  applied  at 
different  seasons.  One  would  not  use  nitrate  in 
November,  because  it  would  be  irretrievably  lost, 
though  slag  could  very  well  be  used  on  arable  at 
this  season  without  any  such  risk.  Each  manure 
has  its  corresponding  time  for  application.  With 
compound  manures,  in  which  of  course  all  the 
elements  are  applied  at  once,  sometimes  one  or 
more  of  them  is  not  used  at  the  time  which  suits  it 
best. 

5th.  Simple  manures  used  alone  are  not  subject 
to  the  losses  which  arise  as  a  result  of  certain 
mixtures  in  chemical  manures,  such  as  loss  of 
ammonia  [NH3]. 

6th.  Being  simple  and  supplied  straight  from 
the  source,  they  are  less  subject  to  adulteration. 

Compound  manures,  again,  are  generally  too 
dear.  The  reason  why  is  not  difficult  to  understand. 
Their  price  ordinarily  includes — 

1.  The  cost  to  the  producer  of  each  of  the  simple 
manures  of  which  the  mixture  is  compounded. 

2.  The  cost  of  transport  from  the  producer  to 
the  manufacturer  of  the  mixture. 

3.  Handling  and  cost  of  storage  here. 

14 


Simple  Manures 

4.  The  cost  of  the  making  of  the  mixture. 

5.  Putting  up  into  sacks  and  storing  again. 

6.  Fresh  cost  of  transport  to  the  place  where  it 
is  to  be  used. 

7.  General  cost,  trade  charges,  makers'  profit ; 
and  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  even  with  the  most 
honest  manufacturer,  the  price  of  the  unit  of  fertilis- 
ing matter  will  sensibly  increase  the  cost  and  often 
not  the  value. 

Besides,  many  compounds  actually  on  the  market 
enjoy  an  unmerited  popularity,  and  fetch  a  price 
far  beyond  their  real  value  simply  as  the  effect  of  the 
law  of  supply  and  demand.  Everybody  knows  them, 
everybody  wants  to  have  them.  The  output  is 
limited,  and  the  maker  can  easily  demand  a  high 
price  and  still  refuse  orders.  This  shows  that  people 
buy  by  recommendation  and  habit,  and  not  by 
knowledge  of  the  subject.  Manures  ought  always 
to  be  bought  by  the  unit  of  fertilising  material. 

Many  people  still  purchase  by  the  ton,  without 
even  considering  what  that  ton  contains,  or  in  any 
case  without  considering  how  much  the  units  of 
fertilising  material  will  come  to.  But  it  is  not  the 
ton  of  manure  which  is  fertile,  but  the  units  of 
fertiUsing  matter  in  it.  WTien  one  pays  good  money 
one  has  a  right  to  receive  good  manure  ;  and  the 
purchaser  should  always  compare  the  price  of  units 
of  fertilising  matter  so  as  to  buy  that  which  under  a 
similar  form  will  cost  the  least. 

The  best  way  of  ascertaining  what  one  is  buying 
is  by  analysing  the  manure,  and  to  bring  analysis 
into  general  use  should  be  the  work  of  an  Agricultural 
Union.     This    society    should    occupy    itself    with 

15 


Manures  in  General 

buying  various  artificial  manures  for  its  members, 
itself  controlling  the  value  of  the  manures. 

In  the  mean  time  each  farmer  could  calculate 
for  himself  the  price  per  unit  that  should  be  asked, 
and  could  have  the  analysis  made  for  his  guidance 
in  a  deal  of  any  great  importance. 

Here  is  a  means  of  calculating. 

In  the  Guide  to  Experiments  for  1915  for  the 
County  of  Northumberland  we  find  that  the  super- 
phosphate employed  contains  soluble  phosphoric 
acid  equal  to  26  per  cent,  phosphate  of  lime,  and  that 
it  was  worth  £2  17s.  per  ton.  Phosphoric  acid, 
then,  corresponds  to  26  units  of  phosphate  of  lime. 
Therefore  the  unit  per  ton  will  come  to  £2  17  s.  -^  26 
=  2s.  2d.  approx. 

Now,  taking  this  price  of  2S.  2d.  per  unit  to  the 
ton  as  a  standard  price,  and  supposing  a  super  con- 
tent of  soluble  phosphoric  acid  equal  to  40  per  cent, 
phosphate  of  lime,  one  would  pay  40  units  X  2S.  2d. 
=  £4  6s.  8d.  to  the  ton,  and  would  gain  an 
advantage  in  using  this,  as  we  shall  see  when  we 
come  to  consider  the  cost  of  transport.  Chloride 
of  potash  [KCl]  costs  £9  per  ton,  and  contains  about 
50  per  cent,  potash  (K2O),  so  that  the  unit  of 
potash  costs  here  3s.  yd.  per  ton.  If  we  take 
kainite,  supposing  it  contains,  for  example,  13  per 
cent,  of  K2O  to  replace  the  KCl,  we  should  pay 
3s.  yd.  X  13  =  £2  ys.  per  ton,  and  we  should  pay 
even  a  little  too  much. 

The  same  ought  to  be  paid,  for  the  unit  of  ferti- 
Hsing  matter  in  compound  manures  as  in  simple. 
For  each  unit  of  fertilising  matter,  the  standard  price 
corresponding,  should  be  calculated,  and  the  buyer 

16 


The  Richest  Manures 

should  determine  for  himself  the  value  of  the 
manure  in  comparison  with  the  merchant's  price. 
These  are  problems  in  the  solving  of  which  the 
farmer  ought  to  be  very  skilled,  and  their  under- 
standing would  in  itself  be  of  great  service  to  him 
annually. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  very  bad  habit  of  using 
manure  by  the  hundredweight  or  ton.  For  the 
most  part  such  manuring  indicates  nothing.  Here 
is  an  example.  There  are  basic  slags  which  contain 
21  to  25  per  cent.  Ph.  Ac. ;  there  are  others  which 
contain  40  to  41  per  cent,  and  even  more.  It  is 
obviously  impossible  to  make  comparison  between 
fields  on  which  the  first  is  employed  and  those 
where  one  has  used  the  second.  Supposing,  for 
example,  that  we  employ  18  to  28  ton  units  of  Ph.  Ac. 
per  acre,  or  4  ton  units  of  Potash  to  the  acre,  etc. 
We  have  so  many  acres  to  manure,  and  we  must 
look  for  a  manure  which  will  give  us  these  quantities 
at  the  most  advantageous  price. 

The  Richest  Manures. 

On  principle  one  would  buy  the  richest  manures — 
that  is  those  containing  the  most  units  of  fertilising 
matter  to  the  same  weight.  When  at  the  place  of 
origin  the  price  of  the  unit  of  the  same  manure  is  the 
same,  the  manure  which  costs  most  is  the  cheapest 
to  buy.  This  is  obvious,  because  a  manure  contain- 
ing only  15  per  cent,  fertilising  matter  will  cost  in 
transport,  sacks,  time  lost  in  spreading  just  as  much 
as  that  which  contains  30  per  cent,  fertilising  matter, 
and  in  the  end  it  is  the  units  of  fertilising  matter 
which  coimt. 

17  c 


Manures  in  General 

These  additional  costs  are  spread  in  the  first 
case  over  15  units,  and  in  the  second,  over  30. 
The  difference  is  sometimes  so  great  that  it  is  often 
even  better  to  take  muriate  of  potash  (KCl)  in 
preference  to  kainite,  though  the  unit  of  Potash  costs 
decidedly  more  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter, 
because  of  the  very  important  additional  expenses  ; 
but  these  in  the  kainite  are  based  on  12  to  13  units, 
while  in  the  KCl  on  50  units  of  Potash  [K20]- 

The  comparative  richness  of  the  manure  to  be 
employed  must  therefore  always  be  considered,  and 
the  price  of  the  unit  ought  to  be  calculated  when 
distributed  on  the  fields.  In  this  way  all  the  costs 
are  included. 

Among  manures  some  are  of  rapid  action,  others 
slow.  Preference  ought  to  be  given,  as  a  rule,  to 
the  rapid,  because  they  will  repay  outlay  more 
quickly.  Very  often  manure  merchants  advance 
arguments  in  favour  of  those  of  their  wares  of 
which  the  action  will  still  be  felt  in  the  following 
year,  or  even  for  many  succeeding  years.  But 
supposing — which  is  not  always  the  case — that  all 
the  fertilising  elements  will  be  assimilated  after  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  years,  the  argument  is 
not  worth  anything.  Each  particle  of  manure 
can  only  be  absorbed  once  by  the  plants,  and  it 
can  only  pay  when  it  is  absorbed.  Therefore  the 
more  quickly  it  is  absorbed  the  more  quickly  will  it 
pay.  To  equalise  the  price  of  the  unit  it  is  a  mis- 
take to  buy  now  a  manure  which  will  not  repay 
the  outlay  in  three  years  or  more.  Generally  it  is 
preferable  to  use  manures  of  such  action  that  they 
will  reimburse  their  cost  the  same  year  that  they 

18 


Assimilability 

are  applied,  and  to  give  each  year  the  quantities  of 
manure  required. 

Besides,  in  using  manure  of  slow  action,  how 
many  units  will  the  plants  find  at  their  disposal 
during  the  first  year  and  during  each  of  the  succeed- 
ing years  ?  There  is  no  room  in  modern  agriculture 
for  all  this  waiting  and  all  this  uncertainty.  Manures 
of  very  slow  action  ought  rather  to  be  regarded  as 
improvers  and  not  as  manures,  and  then  should  be 
bought  at  a  very  low  price. 

Yet  another  manure  is  one  having  a  more  or 
less  progressive  action,  finishing  in  a  year  or  there- 
abouts. The  action  of  these  manures  depends  on 
their  assimilability,  which  again  depends  on  many 
factors.  There  are  two  especially,  of  very  great 
importance,  first  their  solubility,  and  second  their 
fineness.  The  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  species  of 
vegetation  also  play  an  influential  part. 

Assimilability. 

The  most  important  point  about  manures  is 
their  assimilability.  A  non-assimilable  matter  is 
not  a  manure,  although  it  may  contain  nutritive 
elements.  Certain  mineral  phosphates  are  only 
assimilable  with  difficulty,  or  not  assimilable  at  all 
in  ordinary  soils,  so  that  they  often  do  not  possess 
any  fertilising  value.  This  is  why  their  introduc- 
tion into  more  assimilable  fertilising  matter  really 
constitutes  an  adulteration  of  the  product.  Other 
manures  are  more  assimilable  though  not  entirely 
so,  and  not  immediately.  These  are  the  manures  of 
more  or  less  slow  action.  Others,  again,  are  rapidly 
and  immediately  assimilable  and  these  are  the  best 

19 


Manures  in  General 

manures.    They  are  those  which  most  rapidly  repay 
outlay,  and  their  employment  is  the  most  advisable. 

I.  Mineral  Tricalcic  Phosphates — Coarse  and  Inassimi* 

LABLE. 


A.  While  the  crop  is  growing. 
A  poor  crop. 


B.  After  the  crop. 
It  remains  unchanged. 


Assimilability  is  generally  in  proportion  to  the 
solubility. 

Solubility. 

Manures  which  are  soluble  in  water  are,  as  a 
rule,  regarded  as  very  assimilable.  A  good  example 
is  the  Ph.  Ac.  in  superphosphates. 

Then  come  the  manures  soluble  in  weak  acids, 
the  chief  of  which  is  basic  slag,  soluble  in  2  per  cent. 
of  alkaline  citrate.  These  are  justly  regarded  as 
soluble  manures,  although  less  so  than  the  super- 
phosphates ;  while  the  phosphates  soluble  in  strong 
acids  are  justly  considered  as  only  slightly  assimi- 
lable. 

Those  particularly  which  are  only  soluble  in 
strong  acids  have,  however,  different  degrees  of 
assimilability   for  the   same  chemical  form.     This 

20 


Solubility 

difference  may  arise  from  the  more  or  less  violent 
way  in  which  they  have  been  formed,  from  the  very 

2.  Phosphoric  Acid  in  Basic  Slag.    Different  Solubility, 

SAME  Fineness, 

During  the  crop. 


Total  phosphoric  acid. 
Fooy  crop. 


Phosphoric  acid  soluble  in 

weak  acids. 

Good  crop. 


•  =  Insoluble.  O  =  Soluble.  The  general  argument  is  that 
the  total  phosphoric  acid  will  act  next  year — perhaps.  The  likeli- 
hood is  that  it  will  not — perhaps  never. 


After  the  crop. 


The  insoluble  phosphoric  The  soluble  has  been  as- 

acid  remains  in  the  soil  similated  by  the  plants, 

like  this. 

Since  phosphoric   acid  is  not  bought  to  lie  idle  in  the   soil,  it 
follows  that  total  phosphoric  acid  should  never  be  bought. 

high  temperature  which  accompanied  their  forma- 
tion, from  their  more  or  less  recent  formation,  or  from 
the  physical  form  in  which  they  are  presented,  and 

21 


Manures  in  General 

from  other  causes.  Thus  tricalcic  phosphate  is 
usually  slightly  assimilable ;  it  is  very  little  so  in 
the  ordinary  mineral  phosphates,  but  more  so  in  the 
Tunisian  phosphates,  and  in  steamed  bone  flour. 

The  most  soluble  being  the  most  assimilable, 
they  are  generally  taken  as  type  manures  and  the 
value  of  units  of  other  manures  of  the  same  nature 
established  in  comparison  with  them. 

Fineness. 

The  fineness  to  which  manures  are  reduced  has 
a  much  greater  importance  than  is  generally  attached 
to  it.  Some  substances  are  not  really  manures  only 
because  they  are  presented  in  too  large  particles. 
A  striking  example  is  that  supplied  by  Mr.  Hendrick 
in  morsels  of  bone  coming  from  bone  meal  which, 
when  dug  up  after  lying  in  the  earth  for  twenty 
years,  were  found  to  be  still  nearly  as  rich  as  the 
richest  bone  meals  of  commerce.  Here  is  their 
analysis  : 


Humidity 

475  pel"  cent. 

Organic  matter  ^    ... 

...    2675      .. 

Tricalcic  phosphate 

...    52-10      „ 

Carbonate  of  lime 

...    14-40      „ 

Silicaceous  matter 

i-6o 

Indefinite 

0*40      ,, 

100-00 


This  shows  that  in  twenty  years  these  bones  had 
given  nothing  to  the  plants. 

'  Containing  N  3*53,  equal  to  ammonia  4*29. 

22 


Fineness 

Some  manures  are  of  slow  action  because  they 
are  too  coarsely  ground.     This  is  the  case,  among 

3.  Different  Fineness:  same  Solubility.  . 

Same  kind  of  manure  and  same  quality  under  a  different  form. 

During  crop. 


Coarse  manure. 
Feeble  growth. 


Very  fine  manure. 
Vigorous  growth. 


The  square  and  the  small  circles  show  the  manure  particles 
and  the  black  points  inside  the  circles  and  the  square  the 
fertilising  matter  contained  in  them. 


Only  a  few  particles  of  the 
manure  have  been  reached 
and  absorbed  by  the  roots. 


Here  all  the  manurial  con- 
stituents have  been  ab- 
sorbed. 


others,  with    certain   slags,  while   the    same  slags 
finely  ground  are  of  comparatively  rapid  action. 

That  is  why  in  sowing  slag  care  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  its  being  blowTi  away  by  the  wind  by 
mixing  it  with  other  manures  to  which  it  can 
adhere,  or  with  some  neutral  matter  (sand  or  saw- 
dust), because  the  finest  particles,  that  is  those  which 
would  fly  the  furthest,  are  the  best.    Sometimes  one 

23 


Manures  in  General 

hears  it  said,  "It  doesn't  matter,  they  won't  fly 
further  than  my  land  so  they  won't  be  lost,"  That 
may  be,  but  it  is  a  poor  argument,  for  in  any  case 
they  will  fall  where  it  was  not  intended  to  throw 
them,  and  will  come  to  earth  from  loo  to  150  yards 
or  even  further  from  the  place  for  which  they  were 
intended. 

Fine  manures,   other   things   being   equal,  are 
always  to  be  preferred  to  coarse  manures.     Indeed 

4.  Total  Phosphoric  Acid  in  Coarse  Slags. 
During  the  crop.  After  the  crop. 


A  poor  crop. 


Here  the  particles  are 
not  reached. 


They  remain  untouched 
in  the  soil. 


The  two  squares  indicate  large  particles. 
O  =  Soluble  phosphoric  acid.     •  —  Insoluble. 

coarse  manures  should  never  be  used,  and  if  this 
rule  were  observed  they  would  soon  disappear  from 
the  market.  It  is  only  because  of  the  ignorance 
of  the  public  that  badly  ground  manures  find  a 
market.  If  people  really  knew  how  slow  they  were 
they  would  scarcely  employ  them.  In  fact,  if 
buyers  were  not  so  ingenuous  as  to  cling  to  the 
richness  of  the  units  of  these  manures  and  persuade 
themselves  that  perhaps  they  may  be  more  rapidly 

24 


Fineness 

assimilable  than  they  seem,  they  would  not  buy 
them.  It  would  be  more  practical  to  convince 
ourselves  that  they  are  no  more  useful  to  us  than 
to  anybody  else,  and  leave  them  alone.  The  worst 
of  all  is  that  things  are  often  sold  as  manures 
which  are  obviously  coarse,  inassimilable,  or  nearly 
inassimilable  products,  and  which  are  not  worth 
much  more  as  a  matter  of  fact  than  the  simply 
neutral  materials  which  are  sometimes  sold  as 
manure. 

The  nature  of  the  soil  influences  the  assimila- 
bility  of  certain  manures.  For  example,  acid  soils 
will  facilitate  the  assimilation  of  tricalcic  phos- 
phates, whereas  in  the  same  soils  sulphate  of 
ammonia  will  be  less  active. 

Certain  plants  thrive  best  on  certain  manures, 
which  are  therefore  of  a  greater  assimilability  for 
those  plants.  Oats,  for  example,  utilise  nitrates 
most  easily  and  most  rapidly.  Some  manures 
become  more  assimilable  according  to  the  treat- 
ment they  receive.  Thus  bones  are  more  assimi- 
lable after  fermentation,  and  tricalcic  phosphates 
after  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  ;  but  by  these 
processes  the  manures  suffer  chemical  changes  and 
are  no  longer  entirely  the  same. 

Artificial  chemical  manures  are  generally  con- 
centrated. That  is  to  say  they  contain  in  a  little 
weight  a  great  quantity  of  fertilising  matter.  Thus 
when  one  uses  a  hundredweight  of  superphosphate, 
one  has  given  to  the  soil  much  more  phosphoric  acid 
than  by  using  a  cartload  of  farmyard  manure. 
These  manures  are  very  easily  handled,  require 
little    time     for     their     distribution,    are     easily 

^5 


Manures  in  General 

incorporated  with  the  soil,  and  generally  very  little 
subject  to  loss.  The  units  of  fertilising  matter  as 
a  rule  come  out  at  a  reasonable  price,  and — since 
they  cost,  relatively  speaking,  very  little  for  trans- 
port— can  be  employed  everywhere.  They  are, 
besides,  obtainable  in  very  large  quantities. 

But  great  as  has  been  the  concentration  of  these 
manures,  and  great  as  is  their  value,  greater  still 
have  been  the  incentives  for  their  adulteration,  by 
the  introduction  of  neutral  matter  of  no  utility  in 
agriculture  in  the  place  of  fertilising  matter.  This 
substitution  has  been  pushed  to  its  furthest  perhaps 
in  slags,  where  sometimes  it  has  been  complete, 
simple  products  of  colliery  waste,  finely  pulverised, 
having  been  sold  as  slags  when  they  did  not  contam 
a  particle  of  genuine  fertilising  material.  This  is 
the 

Adulteration  of  Manures. 

Commercial  manures,  unfortunately,  are  often  the 
object  of  adulteration.  There  may  be  a  Fertilisers 
and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  but  in  the  actual  state  of 
things  it  would  be  puerile  to  pretend  that  this  is 
sufftcient  to  protect  the  agriculturalist  against  the 
enterprises  of  unscrupulous  manufacturers.  Besides, 
the  farmers  themselves,  by  their  neglect  of  making 
ctualyses,  encourage,  or  at  least  do  nothing  to  hinder, 
these  dishonest  practices.  They  themselves  are, 
however,  the  only  victims. 

This  state  of  things  shows  how  great  would  be 
the  utility  of  a  Union  of  Agriculturists,  one  branch 
of  whose  activity  would  be  the  control  of  the  quality 
of  the  manures  bought  by  its  members.    Working 

26 


Adulteration  of  Manures 

in  a  co-operative  manner  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  services  such  a  union  could  render  would 
be  enormous,  and  they  would  also  benefit  the  small 
holders  who  are  naturally  the  least  efficiently  pro- 
tected. In  the  meantuue  farmers  would  do  well 
to  club  together  and  buy  in  common,  each  bearing 
a  proportional  part  of  the  cost  of  analysis. 

Generally  speaking,  manures  in  the  form  of  salts 
are  the  least  subject  to  adulteration,  and  for  the 
others,  buying  first  hand  diminishes  the  risk  of 
being  deceived. 

Compound  and  organic  manures  are  much 
adulterated,  although  phosphates  do  not  escape 
altogether.  All  sorts  of  things  are  used  as  adul- 
terants, and  nearly  every  manure  has  its  own. 
The  chief  material  of  each  is  always  of  little 
value ;  it  is  often  quite  useless,  and  in  some 
cases  it  is  a  substance  known  to  be  harmful  to 
vegetation. 

The  most  commonly  employed  is  sand.  It 
appears  that  there  are  actually  firms  selling  sand  in 
four  grades  of  fineness  intended  for  adulterating 
purposes.  Then  come  ground  glass,  sawdust,  peat, 
ordinary  earth,  very  often  cinders,  waste  from 
charcoal  furnaces,  charcoal  dust,  plaster,  mineral 
phosphates,  salts  from  skin  preserving,  common 
salt,  the  calcined  residue  of  distilleries,  sometimes 
kainite,  etc. 

The  kainite  employed  in  the  adulteration  of 
Chili  nitrates  sometimes  has  disastrous  consequences 
because  of  its  chloride  of  magnesia  [MgClg].  The 
[MgClo]  which  the  kainite  contains  eats  the  plants, 
and  is  even  capable  of  killing  those  to  which  it  is 

27 


Manures  in  General 

applied  as  a  nitrate  dressing  in  the  month  of  May. 
It  is  an  abominable  fraud. 

The  adulteration  of  animal  charcoal  with  the 
calcined  residue  from  distilleries,  containing  cyanures, 
is  also  harmful  to  vegetation. 

Some  sulphates  of  ammonia  and  gas  limes  also 
contain  cyanures  without  being  adulterated. 

As  it  is  not  advisable  or  reasonable  for  the  farmer 
to  experiment  at  his  own  risk,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
recourse  to  analysis  wherever  possible. 

The  farmer  should  also  be  familiar  with  the 
way  to  set  to  work  in  taking  a  sample,  etc.,  and 
ought,  besides,  to  know  the  law  which  protects  him 
against  adulteration.  That  is  why  at  the  end  of 
this  brochure  we  have  included  a  copy  of  the  Law 
on  Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs. 

The  use  of  chemical  manures  enables  us  to  obtain 
much  better  crops.  Where  formerly  manures  were 
altogether  insufficient  in  comparison  to  the  work  of 
reclaiming  the  land,  or  where  those  obtained  were 
incapable  of  supporting  the  farm  stock,  however 
reduced,  now,  thanks  to  artificials,  we  get  mag- 
nificent results,  and  moreover  these  results  are 
economically  obtained.  For  very  often  because  of 
the  lack  of  a  single  fertilising  element  in  the  soil, 
formerly  the  whole  crop  would  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  whereas  in  many  cases  it  only  required 
the  addition  of  Ph.  Ac,  for  example,  to  increase  the 
capacity  of  the  soil  to  an  incredible  extent.  Not 
only  have  the  crops  been  increased  in  quantity 
and  that  economically,  but  also  the  intrinsic  quality 
of  the  results  is  much  improved.  This  fact  is 
not   perhaps  sufficiently  grasped  by  agriculturists. 

28 


Adulteration  of  Manures 

Remembering  what  they  have  accomplished  in  the 
matter  of  breeding,  how  greatly  they  have  improved 
the  breeds  which  they  have  raised,  and  calling  to 
mind  that  a  great  part  of  this  improvement  has 
been  obtained  by  good  feeding,  it  is  very  obvious 
that  they  should  persevere  in  the  improvement  of 
the  quality  of  their  crops.  In  improving  the  methods 
of  cultivation  and  providing  the  soil  with  a  concen- 
trated manure  just  as  they  give  cattle  concentrated 
nutriment,  they  will  increase  to  a  great  extent  the 
quality  of  their  products.  These  products  in  their 
turn  will  be  more  nutritious  for  the  cattle,  making 
each  beast  of  better  quality,  and  thus  the  improve- 
ment in  cultivation  will  have  a  direct  effect  on  the 
stock. 

The  use  of  artificial  manure  will  promote  the 
cultivation  of  enormous  tracts  of  land  till  now  un- 
reclaimed. It  will  suffice  merely  to  use  the  manures 
at  our  disposal,  and,  if  they  are  used  judiciously, 
the  sterile  land  will  disappear  and  give  place  to 
cultivation  which  will  graze  a  much  larger  head  of 
cattle.  Sometimes  it  is  said  that  certain  chemical 
manures,  nitrate  for  example,  impoverish  the  soil. 
This  is  absolutely  wrong.  It  is,  on  the  contrary, 
the  fanner  who  does  so  by  not  returning  to  the  soil 
what  his  crops  have  taken  out  of  it.  This  is  the 
way  nitrate  works.  The  soil  contained  a  reserve  of 
Potash  and  Ph.  Ac.  or  had  received  of  these  two 
manures  in  restitution  more  than  the  law  of  mini- 
mum had  permitted  the  crops  to  take  out,  because  of 
a  lack  of  nitrogen.  Apply  nitrogen  to  this  land  and 
magnificent  crops  will  result,  but  continue  to  apply 
nitrogen  and  they  will  get  poorer  and  poorer  if  Potash 

29 


Manures  in  General 

and  Ph.  Ac.  are  not  restored  to  the  soil  m  sufficient 
quantities.  Obviously  the  fault  is  that  the  farmer 
has  not  returned  to  the  soil  a  sufficient  proportion  of 
the  nutritive  value  which  he  has  taken  from  it. 

But  if  by  means  of  manure  he  replaces  the  matter 
which  the  crops  have  taken  out  in  excess  will  he 
still  have  a  margin  of  profit  ?  Yes.  Because  the 
reinforcements  of  manure  represent  a  great  increase 
of  value  in  the  crops,  and  the  nitrogen,  Potash  and 
Ph.  Ac.  as  aliments  have  a  much  greater  value  per 
unit  than  as  manure.  It  is  just  as  economical  an 
operation  as  the  transformation  of  foodstuffs  into 
living  stock,  about  which  the  farmer  has  no  doubt 
whatever. 

Acids. — Acids  are  chemical  compounds,  having 
the  property  when  brought  in  contact  with  bases, 
and  associating  with  them,  of  forming  salts,  at  the 
same  time  losing  their  acidity.  An  acid  soil,  there- 
fore, is  one  in  which  acid  predominates.  In  other 
words  it  is  a  sour  soil. 

Base,  or  alkali. — Any  substance  which  has  the 
property  of  neutralising  acids  by  forming  a  salt. 
By  the  addition  of  a  base  to  an  acid  the  quality  of 
the  acid  is  destroyed.  A  basic  soil  or  alkaline  is 
therefore  a  soil  in  which  bases  predominate. 

Neutral. — This  is  the  intermediate  point  between 
the  acid  and  the  basic  states,  when  the  action  of  the 
acids  and  the  bases  counterbalance  each  other. 

The  Functions  of  Manures. 

In  the  distribution  of  roles  attributed  to  these 
manures,  nitrogen  forces  and  makes  the  grass  grow, 
and  also  increases  the  volume  of  vegetable  matter, 

30 


The  Functions  of  Manures 

and  prolongs  the  period  of  vegetation.  When 
assimilable  nitrogen  is  applied  in  the  springtime 
the  plants  immediately  become  green  and  begin  to 
grow.  But  subsequent  development  is  slow ;  the 
seed  is  formed  later  in  the  ear,  and  maturity  re- 
tarded. 

The  luxuriant  vegetation  caused  by  the  applica- 
tion of  assimilable  nitrogen  weakens  the  stalks  of 
the  plants,  renders  them  less  resistant,  and  makes 
the  com  more  liable  to  "  lay."  That  is  why  we  have 
recourse  to  potash  which  will  give  solidity  and  body 
to  the  plants,  and  enable  them  better  to  resist  the 
elements.     Ph.  Ac.  also  acts  to  the  same  purpose. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  addition  of  phosphoric 
acid  hastens  the  formation  of  grain  and  ensures 
early  maturity.  The  action  of  these  three  manures 
therefore  counterbalance  and  complete  each  other 
so  that  there  will  be  an  abundant  production  of 
strong  growth  of  good  quality,  ripening  in  good 
time.  This  last  point  ought  to  be  taken  into  serious 
consideration  in  regions  where  summer  is  short  and 
crops  occasionally  fail  to  ripen. 


31 


CHAPTER   III 

Nitrogenous  Manures 

Nitrogenous  Manures  in  General. 

The  nitrogenous  manures  are  the  most  hnportant 
of  all,  and  they  are  the  dearest.  They  chiefly 
assist  the  formation  of  the  albuminous  matter 
in  plants  which  constitutes  the  most  valuable  food. 
When  the  law  of  the  minimum  is  satisfied  they 
also  assist  very  largely  in  increasing  the  bulk  of 
the  crops.  Soils  which  are  deficient  in  assimilable 
nitrogenous  matters  are  incapable  of  producing 
sufficient  crops.  And  where  these  latter  are 
luxuriant  the  fact  must  be  attributed  to  the 
abundance  of  nitrogenous  manure,  the  presence 
of  which  is  generally  revealed  by  the  dark  or  bluish- 
green  tint  of  the  leaves. 

One  important  point  to  be  considered,  since 
the  unit  of  nitrogen  is  so  dear,  ought  to  be  only  to 
choose  manures  in  which  the  nitrogen  is  in  easily 
assimilable  form. 

Fortunately  for  farmers  there  are  on  the  market 
a  large  and  ever  growing  number  of  nitrogenous 
products  of  a  type  suitable  to  supply  the  insuffi- 
ciency in  the  soil. 

But  as  the  unit  of  nitrogen  is  so  dear  it  will  be 

32 


Nitrate  of  Soda 

necessary  to  buy  it  in  a  really  assimilable  form  and 
to  use  it  only  in  such  a  way  that  there  will  be  no 
fear  of  loss  in  the  drains. 

All  these  products  should  be  bought  on  analysis 
or  origin.  Often  the  nitrogen  in  organic  compound 
manures  will  be  questionable  because  it  may  be 
present  in  a  form  either  slowly  or  partially  assimil- 
able or  even  almost  entirely  inassimilable. 

Care  should  be  taken,  however,  not  to  abuse  the 
use  of  nitrogenous  manures,  specially  on  cereals,  be- 
cause in  this  case  it  will  cause  a  tendency  to  lay  the 
com.  It  is  also  necessary  to  take  care  not  to  mix 
nitrogenous  manures  which  are  susceptible  to  loss, 
with  others  which  will  promote  it,  because  such 
losses  are  at  times  very  considerable. 

Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Nitrate  of  soda  or  Chili  saltpetre  comes  from  Chili, 
as  its  name  indicates.  It  is  still  the  most  abundant 
source  of  nitrogen  for  agricultural  purposes  among 
the  commercial  manures.  About  2,000,000  tons  are 
exported  per  annum,  but  in  spite  of  that  there  is  still 
enough  to  last  nearly  another  hundred  years.  It  is 
extracted  from  beds  of  salts  formed  on  a  high  plateau 
at  an  elevation  of  nearly  3300  feet,  situated  between 
the  Andes  and  the  coastal  range  on  the  Pacific 
border,  in  a  hot  climate,  where  it  rains  on  an  average 
only  about  once  in  six  or  seven  years.  Iquique  and 
Antofagasta  are  the  chief  ports  of  exportation. 

In  this  hot,  rainless  climate,  the  nitrate  is  formed 
by  nitrification  of  the  organic  matter  which  is  formed 
in  the  soil  of  the  higher  part  of  the  plain.  The 
rain  water  rushing  down  from  the  mountains  has 

33  D 


Nitrogenous  Manures 

carried  down  the  nitrate  to  the  lowest  level  of  the 
plain  at  the  foot  of  the  coast  range.  The  water 
has  evaporated  and  the  beds  of  salts  are  left.  In 
this  way  many  superimposed  beds  of  salt  have  been 
formed,  covered  by  beds  of  sand  brought  down  at 
the  same  time  or  deposited  by  the  wind  ;  and  so  it  is 
seen  that  sometimes  the  salt  beds  are  separated  by 
beds  of  sand.  Generally  the  beds  of  salt  are  about 
a  3^ard  in  thickness,  but  sometimes  they  are  six  or 
seven  yards  through  and  even  more.  To  obtain  the 
salt  these  deposits  are  blown  up  by  mines.  It  is 
called  caliche. 

The  deposits  do  not  consist  entirely  of  nitrate  of 
soda.  The  best  beds  contain  from  40  to  50  per  cent, 
of  nitrate,  those  of  the  third  quality,  which  are  the 
last  to  be  worked,  from  17  to  30  per  cent.  They 
always  contain  sea  salt,  often  nitrate  of  potash, 
sometimes  sulphate  of  soda,  lime,  and  magnesia, 
and  some  impurities. 

Profiting  by  the  indications  of  differing  solubility 
of  the  sea  salt  and  the  nitrate  of  soda  the  workers 
treat  the  caliche  with  boiling  water,  and  the  nitrate 
of  soda  crystallises  in  cooling,  while  the  sea  salt 
remains  m  solution.  This  water  is  again  treated 
to  extract  the  iodine,  and  the  day  that  this  was 
achieved  the  price  of  iodine  went  down  by  half. 

The  nitrate  is  dried  in  the  sun  and  put  into  sacks. 
This  nitrate  is  coarse  and  has  a  dirty  appearance, 
containing  a  little  sea  salt,  sulphate  of  soda  or 
magnesia,  water,  and  a  few  impurities,  and  about 
95  per  cent,  nitrate  of  soda.  It  ought  to  contain  about 
15-5  of  nitrogen,  should  not  contain  less  than  15  per 
cent,  and  cannot  contain  more  than  16  per  cent. 

34 


Nitrate  of  Soda 

It  is  very  deliquescent,  easily  absorbing  atmo- 
spheric moisture  and  very  easily  dissolving,  so  that  in 
the  vessels  which  carry  it  they  have  frequently  to 
pump  the  nitrate  water  out  of  the  holds.  The  sacks 
also  absorb  a  considerable  quantity  of  nitrate,  often 
as  much  a  kilogramme  (2  lbs.  5  ozs.).  These  sacks 
should  therefore  always  be  washed  and  the  water 
distributed  on  the  land.  It  is  imprudent  to  ac- 
cumulate any  number  of  empty,  damp  but  un- 
washed nitrate  sacks,  because  they  may  cause 
spontaneous  combustion. 

Nitrate  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place.  If  clods 
are  formed  in  the  mass  they  must  be  carefully 
broken,  so  that  the  manure  may  be  spread  very 
regularly.  This  is  a  point  worthy  of  mention. 
All  the  care  possible  is  not  too  much  to  take  in  the 
spreading  of  chemical  manures,  because,  in  spite  of 
everything,  the  fertilising  matters  will  never  be  so 
regularly  distributed  as  in  carelessly  spread  farm- 
yard manure. 

Nitrate  is  always  given  as  a  top  dressing.  The 
first  light  rain  is  enough  to  dissolve  it  and  distribute 
it  in  the  soil.  In  spring  time  the  heavy  rains  may 
wash  it  away  altogether.  That  is  why  it  must  not 
be  given  too  early.  In  the  summer,  however, 
practically  no  loss  need  be  feared.  It  should  never 
be  given  in  the  winter,  and  when  applied  before 
wmter  it  must  be  used  in  small  quantities  only,  and 
early  enough  for  the  crops  to  use  it  up  completely. 
Unless  this  rule  is  observed  the  unused  residue  will 
be  entirely  lost. 

Do  not  mix  it  with  superphosphates,  because  if 
the  latter  are  very  acid  there  will  be  a  risk  of  creating 

35 


Nitrogenous  Manures 

nitrous  vapours  which  cause  a  loss  of  nitrogen. 
Often  farmers  say  that,  after  spreading  nitrate  in  a 
dry  season,  the  nitrate  attracts  to  itself  the  mois- 
ture in  the  soil,  forming  round  the  grains  of  nitrate 
an  aureole  saturated  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  which 
destroys  the  plants  with  which  it  comes  in  con- 
tact, and,  on  the  other  hand,  forms  a  zone  of 
abnormally  dry  soil  in  which  the  plants  suffer  greatly 
from  drought.  Then  do  not  spread  nitrate  when  the 
soil  is  not  sufficiently  moist  or  when  rain  is  not 
expected. 

The  soil  has  no  power  to  retain  the  nitrates 
and  the  superfluous  water  drains  them  away.  That 
is  why  it  is  always  advisable  not  to  give  large  doses 
and  always  to  make  two  applications  if  possible.  In 
summer  time,  however,  the  evaporation  of  the  water 
of  the  soil  will  always  be  sufficient  to  prevent  this 
wasting.  A  well-known  action  of  nitrate  is  that 
it  keeps  a  freshly  turned  soil  damp,  and  makes  a 
dry  soil  cool,  to  such  an  extent  that  in  dry  years  the 
use  of  nitrate  at  the  right  season  will  have  a  very 
beneficial  effect,  the  nitrate  rendering  the  soil  less 
permeable  and  to  some  extent  preventing  evapora- 
tion. 

Nitrate  of  soda  being  the  most  active  and  rapid 
of  all  nitrogenous  manures  is  quickly  utilised  by 
the  plants,  and  in  the  spring  on  wheat  crops  dis- 
coloured by  an  excess  of  moisture  during  the  winter 
the  results  become  noticeable  within  two  or  three 
days  in  a  fresh  verdant  colour.  The  addition  of 
nitrate,  which  is  often  at  a  minimum  in  the  soil, 
enables  the  farmer  ordinarily  to  obtain  a  notable 
increase  of  crops ;   but  the  results  fall  off  rapidly 

36 


Nitrate  of  Soda 

after  a  few  years  unless  care  is  taken  to  use  phos- 
phates, and — nearly  always — potash,  in  conjunction 
with  the  nitrate.  Contrary  to  what  one  often  hears, 
nitrate  does  not  exhaust  the  soil,  but  in  raising  the 
dose  of  nitrate  to  the  level  demanded  by  the  Law 
of  the  Minimum,  the  existing  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  are  enabled  to  augment  the  yield  to  an 
extent  which  they  could  not  otherwise  attain. 
Nitrate,  then,  does  not  exhaust  the  soil,  but 
evidently  requues  to  be  used  in  conjunction  with 
other  fertilising  elements  which,  thanks  to  the 
nitrate,  the  plants  are  able  to  absorb  to  the  utmost, 
and  so  give  a  more  abundant  crop.  The  farmer 
should  clearly  understand  the  fact  that  manures 
never  exhaust  the  soil,  and  as  nitrate  of  soda  is  a 
manure  therefore  it  is  not  exhaustive  in  its  action. 
As  we  saw  in  the  chapter  on  the  necessity  of 
manures,  manure  is  all  matter  applied  to  the  soil 
for  the  purpose  of  augmenting  the  quantity  of  plant 
food  utilisable  by  the  plants,  and  on  the  other  hand 
we  learned  from  the  Law  of  the  Minimum  that  the 
crops  are  proportionate — all  conditions  being  equal 
— to  the  amount  of  manure  that  the  soil  contains 
in  the  least  quantity  ;  referring  further  on  to  expor- 
tation, restitution  and  importation.  But  in  using 
nitrate  of  soda,  which  constitutes  a  single  manure 
containing  nitrogen  only,  it  is  necessary  m  order  to 
obtain  any  result  that  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
should  be  present  in  the  soil  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  nitrogen.  This  proves  that  the  former 
manuring  was  not  right,  that  the  soil  was  starved 
for  want  of  nitrogen,  that  it  was  nitrogen  hungry 
because  the  former  manuring  did  not  supply  the 

37 


Nitrogenous  Manures 

necessary  quantity  which  would  have  enabled  the 
crops  to  take  up  the  available  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash. 

The  practice  of  giving  nitrate  of  soda  (NaNOg) 
alone  is,  however,  not  to  be  recommended.  The 
action  of  nitrate  is  generally  very  remarkable.  It 
is  an  excellent  manure  of  which  the  unit  serves  as 
a  type  for  the  price  of  the  unit  of  nitrogen  in  all 
manures.  Properly  used,  in  soil  which  it  suits,  no 
other  nitrogenous  manure  can  equal  it.  It  can  be 
used  in  any  soil,  but  it  is  particularly  suitable  to 
those  only  slightly  lacking  in  lime,  because  the 
sulphate  of  ammonia  will  cause  a  further  loss  of  lime. 
It  is  very  good  on  strong  soils ;  in  light  permeable 
soils  it  must  be  given  in  two  applications  so  as 
to  prevent  waste. 

It  should  not  be  employed  on  leguminous  crops, 
but  it  suits  everything  else,  especially  wheat,  grass, 
permanent  pastures,  mangolds,  turnips,  carrots  and 
cabbages.  On  potatoes,  however,  sulphate  of  am- 
monia is  to  be  preferred.  On  mangolds  long  prac- 
tice has  shown  the  advantage  of  giving  the  first  half 
of  the  manure  a  little  while  after  planting  out  and 
the  second  at  the  time  of  cleaning.  In  vegetable 
culture  it  is  very  valuable  and  is  given  at  frequent 
intervals  in  strong  applications. 

Nitrate  of  soda  is  often  adulterated  with  common 
salt,  salts  of  potash  and  crystalline  sand.  That  is 
why  it  must  always  be  bought  on  the  vendor's 
guarantee.  To  see  if  the  sacks  have  been  opened 
cut  the  string,  which  should  be  dirty  on  the  outside 
and  clean  on  the  inside  ;  moreover  the  mark  of  the 
cord  should  be  clean  on  the  sack.     If  it  is  not  it  has 

38 


Sulphate  of  Ammonia 

been  opened.  The  sacks  ought,  also,  to  be  the 
original  ones.  Adulteration  by  means  of  kainite, 
which,  applied  as  a  top  dressing  is  corrosive,  is 
abominable,  since  it  may  cause  the  loss  of  a  crop, 
or  at  least  seriously  affect  the  results. 

The  action  of  nitrate  of  soda  is  only  felt  during 
one  season,  so  that  it  must  be  renewed  annually. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia,  (NH3)  2H2SO4,  is  a  combina- 
tion of  ammonia  (HNg)  and  sulphuric  acid  (H2SO4). 
The  sulphate  of  ammonia  of  commerce  is  never  pure, 
but  it  ought  not  to  contain  more  than  5  per  cent, 
of  impurities.  It  should  then  contain  20*2  per  cent, 
nitrogen  and  24*5  per  cent,  ammonia.  The  colour 
varies  according  to  the  impurities  it  contains,  some 
of  which  may  constitute  dangerous  poisons  to  plant 
life.  For  example,  very  white  sulphate  of  ammonia 
may  contain  free  sulphuric  acid.  This  sulphate  will 
bum  the  hands  and  clothes  of  any  one  sowing  it, 
rust  the  manure  spreader,  and  corrode  the  plants  it 
touches.  Red  or  black  sulphate  often  contains 
sulphocyanure  of  ammonia,  of  which  Voelker  has 
proved  that  less  than  10  lbs.  per  acre  is  sufficient 
to  destroy  the  entire  crop,  and  there  are  sulphates 
which  contain  more  than  a  cwt.  Sulpho-cyanide 
of  ammonia  can  easily  be  recognised,  however, 
because  in  heating  with  lime  it  gives  off  a  strong 
smell  of  ammonia. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  frequently  adulterated 
with  sand  or  common  salt,  and  sometimes  with 
sulphate  of  soda,  but  the  fraud  can  be  detected 
by  throwing  some  of  the  sulphate  on  to  a  white 

39 


Nitrogenous  Manures 

hot  shovel.  If  any  residue  is  left  the  sulphate  has 
been  adulterated. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  principally  obtained 
in  the  making  of  coal  gas.  By  the  distillation 
of  coal,  nitrogen  is  converted  into  ammonia,  which 
is  retained  m  the  water  used  in  the  first  purifi- 
cation of  the  gas.  This  water  is  mixed  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  sulphate  is  obtained.  It  is 
largely  produced  and  used  in  England,  Lawes 
and  Gilbert  being  quoted  amongst  the  best  autho- 
rities on  its  use.  For  a  long  time  it  was  believed 
that  the  ammonia  ought  to  be  nitrified  to  make 
it  assimilable  for  plants,  but  it  has  been  proved 
by  Muntz  and  Breal  that  cereals  can  assimilate  it 
in  a  natural  state.  The  process  is  generally  as 
follows.  When  the  conditions  for  nitrification  are 
fulfilled  the  sulphate  of  ammonia  reacts  on  the 
carbonate  of  lime  and  obtams  from  it  carbonate 
of  ammonia  and  sulphate  of  lime — which  latter 
is  lost  in  the  drains.  So  that  the  prompt  and  con- 
stant use  of  lime  after  sulphate  of  ammonia  is 
necessary.  The  carbonate  of  ammonia  is  then  de- 
composed by  the  zoolites  of  the  clay  or  the  calcaire 
of  the  humates  which  fix  the  ammonia  and  free  the 
sodium  or  calcium.  Afterwards  the  microbe  of 
nitrification  turns  the  ammonia  first  into  nitrite  and 
then  into  nitrate  of  lime  by  oxidisation.  For  the 
oxidisation  to  act  easily  the  soil  must  be  well  aerated, 
and  also  have  some  degree  of  warmth.  It  cannot 
take  place  in  a  cold  soil.  So  that  during  the  winter 
neither  nitrification  nor  loss  of  nitrogen  by  means  of 
sulphate  of  ammonia  takes  place. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  must  therefore  be  used 

40 


Cyanamide,  Lime  Nitrogen,  etc. 

on  calcareous  soils,  or  lime  must  be  applied  after- 
wards. It  is  not  a  manure  of  immediate  action,  like 
nitrate.  It  ought  to  undergo  the  process  of  trans- 
formation just  described  if  used  before  the  winter, 
but  it  has  the  great  advantage  of  not  wasting  durmg 
the  whiter.  It  can  therefore  be  applied  to  wheat 
before  wmter,  when  it  will  push  it  on.  It  will  be 
better  to  give  nitrate  in  the  early  spring  to  hasten 
the  beginning  of  growth,  but  in  the  course  of  the 
summer  sulphate  is  excellent  by  way  of  supplying 
the  full  complement  of  nitrate.  Sulphate  is  pre- 
ferable for  malting  barley  and  potatoes.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  mix  it  with  basic  slag  and 
even  more  so  with  pure  lime,  because  the  loss  of 
nitrogen  caused  by  the  action  of  the  lime  will 
be  considerable.  It  can  be  used  at  the  same 
time  as  slag  or  lime,  but  separately.  Nitrogen 
corresponds  to  ammonia  in  the  proportion  of 
I  to  I*2I5. 

Cyanamide,  Lime  Nitrogen,  Calcium  Cyana- 
mide, Nitrolim. 

This  is  the  name  given  to  a  valuable  manure  put 
on  the  market  a  few  years  ago.  The  nitrogen  it 
contains  is  drawTi  from  the  air,  and  therefore  consti- 
tutes an  inexhaustible  supply  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. It  is  a  heavy,  blackish  substance,  resembling 
granular  gunpowder,  but  having  a  characteristic 
smell  like  acetylene.  It  is  a  nitrogenous  product 
manufactured  by  the  Frank  and  Caro  process,  by 
passing  a  current  of  air,  deprived  of  its  oxygen  by 
red-hot  copper  filings,  under  pressure  into  a  mixture 
of  lime  and  coal  brought  to  white  heat  in  an  electric 

41 


Nitrogenous  Manures 

oven.    Carbure  of  calcium  can  also  be  used  mstead 
of  coal  and  lime. 

The  cyanamide  of  calcium  (CaCNg)  generally 
contains  from  14  to  21  of  nitrogen,  so  that  it  may  be 
richer  than  nitrate  of  soda  and  almost  as  rich  as 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  but  often  it  is  equalised  for 
market  purposes  with  the  contents  of  nitrate  of  soda, 
say  15-5  per  cent. ;  moreover  it  contains  20  per  cent, 
of  combined  and  40  per  cent,  of  hydrated  lime. 

To  protect  it  from  the  air  it  is  supplied  in  sacks 
lined  with  paper,  otherwise  it  would  absorb  the 
moisture  and  swell,  increasing  in  weight  and  losmg 
ammonia.  Since  it  is  in  granular  form  it  can  be 
handled  freely,  and  may  be  applied  with  the  dis- 
tributor. It  must  be  harrowed  in  immediately  to 
prevent  any  loss  of  nitrogen.  For  this  reason  it 
cannot  be  used  as  a  top  dressing.  It  must  also  be 
worked  in  some  time  before  sowing  because  it  might 
act  unfavourably  on  the  crop  when,  on  account  of 
the  action  of  acids,  it  liberates  its  dicyanamide. 

Its  reaction  is  not  rapid  because  the  nitrogen  has 
to  pass  through  the  ammoniacal  state  before  it  be- 
comes transformed  into  nitrate,  but  it  is  a  good 
manure,  usually  giving  results  comparable  to  those 
of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  sometimes  better— thanks, 
no  doubt,  to  the  presence  of  lime.  In  peaty  soils 
it  has  not  given  good  results.  Its  value  may  be 
estimated  as  about  that  of  sulphate  of  ammonia 
and  its  use  is  certainly  to  be  recommended. 

For  the  English  market  it  is  made  in  Sweden 
and  Norway  by  an  English  company.  It  is  produced 
also  by  a  German  company,  and  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  gunpowder. 

42 


Nitrate  of  Lime 

Nitrate  of  Lime. 

Nitrate  of  lime,  like  lime  nitrogen,  is  a  valuable 
manufactured  manure  in  which  the  nitrogen  is  also 
taken  from  the  air.  The  manufacture  of  nitrate 
of  lime  is  based  on  the  principle  that  the  oxygen 
and  the  nitrogen  in  the  air  combine  under  the 
mfluence  of  an  electric  flame.  This  fact  explains 
why  thundery  years  are  generally  fertile.  The 
lightning,  which  is  only  an  electric  flame,  produces 
in  the  air — which  is  charged  with  mists — nitrous  and 
nitric  acids  which  the  rain  washes  dowTi  into  the 
earth  to  form  nitrates.  Here  is  the  process  : — 
N  +  O  =  NO,  oxide  of  nitrogen  ;  NO  +  O  =  NO2, 
bioxide  of  nitrogen  ;  2NO2  +  HgO  =  HNO3  +HNO2. 
nitric  and  nitreous  acid.  Birkeland  and  Eyde,  two 
Norwegian  savants,  discovered  these  facts,  and  a 
factory  at  Nottoden  in  Norway  produces  considerable 
quantities.  Nitric  acid  is  produced  by  means  of  an 
electric  spark  from  the  air  and  dissolved  in  water, 
carbonate  of  lime  being  added  to  the  solution.  This 
is  heated  to  saturation  point  and  solidifies  in 
cooling. 

One  essential  condition  of  the  manufacture  is  the 
command  of  a  cheap  electric  current.  The  nitrate 
of  lime  thus  obtained  is  in  small,  hard  crystals,  or 
reduced  to  powder  containing  about  13  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen  which  is  soluble  in  water  and  very  delique- 
scent. It  must  therefore  be  kept  in  a  very  dry 
place.  It  is  packed  in  wooden  casks  lined  with 
paper  which  serves  to  keep  out  atmospheric 
moisture. 

It  contains  about  12  to  13  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

43 


Nitrogenous  Manures 

It  is  an  excellent  manure,  in  which  the  nitrogen 
is  directly  assimilable  and  can  be  applied  as  a  top 
dressing,  like  nitrate  of  soda,  when  it  has  a  more 
rapid  action  than  lime  nitrogen.  It  has  given  satis- 
factory results  in  comparison  with  other  nitrogenous 
manures  (nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  ammonia). 
It  is  good  for  general  use  and  better  than  nitrate  on 
soils  poor  in  lime ;  where,  if  applied  at  a  favour- 
able time,  sufhciently  rainy  or  damp,  it  improves  the 
permeability.  In  a  dry  season  nitrate  of  soda  will 
have  the  advantage  because  it  has  just  the  opposite 
effect. 

Nitrate  of  lime  absorbs  the  moisture  of  the  air. 
To  avoid  this  it  is  put  up  in  wooden  barrels  lined 
with  paper,  or  water-tight  drums.  It  melts  if  not 
properly  stored,  and  so  losses  occur.  Nitrate  of  lime 
generally  contains  a  small  quantity  of  nitride  of 
lime,  which,  however,  is  readily  transformed  into 
nitrate. 

When  available,  it  might  be  recommended  as 
manure. 


44 


CHAPTER   IV 

Phosphates  in  General 

Of  all  the  chemical  manures  to  which  we  have 
recourse  we  find  the  greatest  variety  is  derived  from 
phosphates.  There  is  a  great  diversity  of  matter, 
distributed  practically  all  over  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  which  can  furnish  them.  Mineral  layers, 
more  or  less  important  and  under  different  forms, 
are  found  in  the  greater  part  of  Europe  ;  America 
possesses  them  in  large  quantities,  and  Africa 
supplies  them  also.  After  mineral  products  come 
phospho-guanos  which  exist  in  many  foreign 
countries. 

Then  there  are  phosphates  of  bones  of  many  kinds, 
guano  of  fish  bones,  and  lastly  slags. 

The  sources  of  phosphates  therefore  are  obviously 
plentiful  ;  so  much  so,  and  in  such  diverse  qualities, 
that  it  is  not  astonishing  that  sometimes  one  con- 
fuses them,  and  that  it  seems  difficult  to  distinguish 
their  value  as  fertilising  materials  in  the  great  number 
of  preparations  that  are  recommended.  Each  pro- 
ducer preaches  his  own  and  finds  it  the  best. 

It  should  be  said,  however,  that  many  of  these 
phosphates  cannot  be  regarded  as  manures  in  many 
soils,  and  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  therefore,  that 

45 


Phosphates  in  General 

the  farmer  should  be  able  to  judge  for  himself  the 
real  value  of  the  material  that  is  offered  for  sale  ; 
and  that,  having  made  up  his  mind,  he  should 
compare  the  net  cost  of  the  unit  of  the  various 
qualities  of  phosphates  which  he  wishes  to  use. 

It  is  as  well  that  phosphates  are  plentiful,  smce 
they  are  in  such  great  demand.  Arable  soil  is  the 
least  rich  in  them  generally,  and  the  quantity  is 
decreasing  continuall};'.  The  grain  which  is  sold 
contains  proportionately  to  the  contents  of  the  soil 
many  more  phosphates  than  any  other  agricultural 
produce,  and  the  cattle,  which  end  by  being  sold, 
also  contain  great  quantities  in  their  bones. 

This  explains  the  necessity  for  using  large  quan- 
tities of  phosphate  manures,  and  when  applied  in 
assimilable  forms  too  large  applications  can  rarely 
be  given.  For  not  only  are  phosphates  like  other 
manures,  necessary  to  increase  the  produce,  but 
also  they  improve  its  quality.  And  here  is  another 
very  important  advantage  that  we  gain  :  by  forcing 
fructification,  they  hasten  maturity  and  so  ensure 
earlier  crops.  Also  in  regions  where  summer  is  short 
and  the  ground  very  humiferous,  where  lime  has  to 
be  used,  phosphates  are  absolutely  necessary  to 
hasten  maturity,  which  very  often  is  late,  and 
sometimes  never  comes  at  all. 

In  some  very  acid  peaty  soils  the  acidity  should 
be  utilised  to  solubilise  tricalcic  phosphates,  either 
mineral  or  bone. 

It  is  necessary  therefore  to  consider  separately 
all  the  substances  which  contain  phosphates. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  phosphoric  acid 
corresponds  to  2*i8  of  tribasic  phosphate. 

46 


Mineral  Phosphates 

Mineral  Phosphates. 

Mineral  phosphates  or  phosphorites  are  found  in 
many  places  all  over  the  surface  of  the  globe — in 
France,  Belgium,  Germany,  Spain,  Russia,  England, 
America,  and  Africa.  In  England  they  are  chiefly 
encountered  in  the  form  of  phosphatic  chalk  at 
Taplow  in  Buckinghamshire,  or  in  accumulations 
surrounding  fossils  in  the  Cambridge  greensand,  and 
in  Bedfordshire  in  the  same  form.  Deposits  of 
coproliths,  which  we  shall  presently  describe,  are 
foimd  in  the  lias,  and  also  in  the  black  phosphorites 
of  North  Wales. 

The  phosphoric  acid  is  present  in  a  form  of  in- 
soluble tribasic  phosphate  of  lime  [Ca3(P04)2],  asso- 
ciated with  various  impurities,  such  as  carbonate  of 
lime  [CaCOs],  sulphate  of  lime  [CaSOJ,  magnesia 
[MgO],  iron,  aluminium,  etc. 

Mineral  phosphates,  especially  the  rich  phos- 
phates of  Florida  and  of  North  Africa,  are  employed 
chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  superphosphates. 
Transformed  into  superphosphate  they  are  extremely 
valuable  and  have  been  and  continue  to  be  of 
signal  services  to  agriculture. 

On  account  of  the  results  of  lucky  trials,  made 
under  favourable  circumstances,  they  have  been 
used,  ground  more  or  less  finely,  without  under- 
going any  process  of  transformation.  Needless  to 
say  the  results  in  general  agriculture  have  often 
been  contradictory  and  often  negative,  but  in  every 
case  their  value  eventually  has  been  in  proportion 
to  their  fmeness.  Finely  ground  they  may  be  used 
in  very  acid  soil,  but  in  neutral  soil  they  will  give 

47 


Phosphates 

no  appreciable  results — sometimes  no  results  at  all ; 
so  that  some  soils  naturally  rich  in  mineral  phos- 
phates will  still  respond  to  soluble  phosphates. 
Simply  ground  they  are  still  frequently  used  for 
the  adulteration  of  other  manures,  principally  com- 
pound manures,  also  guano,  superphosphates,  and 
basic  slag,  and  in  this  way  they  have  done  bad 
service. 

Good  samples  of  mineral  phosphates  should 
contain  from  50  to  75  per  cent,  tribasic  phosphate, 
which  corresponds  to  23  to  34  per  cent,  phosphoric 
anhydride,  P2O5  (anhydric  phosphoric  acid). 

Assimilable  Phosphates. 

Phosphates  to  be  assimilable,  ought  to  be 
soluble  in  water,  as  is  the  case  with  superphosphates, 
or  soluble  in  weak  acids — as  is  the  case  with  reverted 
superphosphate  and  basic  slag,  or  capable  of  being 
rendered  soluble  in  the  soil,  as  may  occur  with 
tricalcic  phosphates. 

Trials  which  have  given  contradictory  results 
have  been  made  on  the  strength  of  comparative 
experiments,  offering  solutions  of  a  problem  which 
has  not  been  discussed  in  the  right  light :  for 
example,  a  trial  in  acid  earth  by  means  of  super- 
phosphate and  tricalcic  phosphate. 

Generally  speaking,  by  using  superphosphate  in 
neutral  soil  and  in  alkaline  soil  needing  no  lime,  or 
even  in  a  light  acid  soil,  when  we  want  to  obtain  a 
rapid  action,  good  results  will  be  obtained.  Mmeral 
phosphates  should  not  be  employed  in  such  cases. 
As  a  rule  basic  slag  should  be  used  in  soils  requiring 
lime,  in  neutral  or  acid  soils,   and  in   soils  that 

48 


Superphosphates 

contain  a  great  deal  of  humus.    It  may,  however,  be 
appUed  to  soils  which  do  contain  lime. 

Superphosphate  and  basic  slag  and  the  infre- 
quent precipitate  phosphates  are  the  best  forms 
of  phosphate,  and  are  nearly  always  preferable. 
In  alkaline  or  neutral  soils  good  results  ought 
not  to  be  expected  from  mineral  phosphates. 
They  are  not  suitable  for  soils  rich  in  lime,  but 
under  certain  conditions — for  example  in  wet  soils, 
decidedly  acid  and  containing  a  great  deal  of  organic 
matter,  they  give  encouraging  results  usually,  and 
sometimes  very  good  ones.  It  is  understood  of 
course  that  when  applying  mineral  phosphates  lime 
is  not  also  applied,  because  by  neutralising  the  acids, 
and  so  arresting  their  action  for  the  formation  of 
assimilable  phosphate  from  the  tricalcic  phosphate 
the  benefit  of  the  operation  would  be  altogether  lost. 
Large  applications  of  mineral  phosphates  may  be 
recommended  on  certain  waste  lands,  before  the 
first  ploughing,  seeing  that  the  price  is  low  ;  but 
even  under  the  most  favourable  conditions,  which 
do  not  occur  frequently,  they  do  not  give  such  good 
results  as  slag. 

Superphosphates. 

The  phosphates  met  with  in  nature,  though 
sometimes  very  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  are  not,  how- 
ever, very  assimilable  by  plants,  when  regarded  as 
manure,  a  fact  which  ought,  without  doubt,  to  be 
attributed  to  their  chemical  form,  tricalcic  phosphate 

[(CaO)3P205]. 

Liebig,  in  1840,  was  the  first  to  suggest  treating 
them    with    sulphuric    acid    to    make   them    more 

49  E 


Phosphates 

assimilable,  measuring  their  assimilability  by  their 
solubility  in  water,  and  experimenting  on  bones; 
and  two  years  later,  after  successful  experiments  on 
bones  and  mineral  phosphates,  Lawes  established 
the  first  factory  at  Deptford. 

Superphosphates,  therefore,  are  the  result  of 
treating  the  substances  contained  in  tricalcic  phos- 
phates [Ca3(P04)2],  with  sulphuric  acid  [H2SO4],  and 
so  rendering  them  super-assimilative  by  the  following 
method.  A  suitable  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  is 
made  to  react  on  tricalcic  phosphates,  mineral  phos- 
phates for  example.  Theoretically  one  ought  to  get 
— Ca3(P04)2  -f  2H2SO4  =  CaH4(P04)2  +  2CaS04  = 
plaster.  But  m  practice  one  finds  that  a  little  free 
phosphoric  acid  has  been  formed  and  that  a  portion 
of  tricalcic  phosphate  has  not  been  touched,  and 
the  more  foreign  matter  the  mineral  phosphate 
contams  the  more  will  this  be  the  case. 

This  difficulty  is  partially  met,  however,  by 
grinding  the  mineral  phosphate  very  fine,  and  adding 
water  to  the  sulphuric  acid  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
make  it  thoroughly  penetrate  the  mixture.  In  this 
way  a  good  superphosphate  ought  not  to  contain 
more  than  2  per  cent,  insoluble  phosphate.  In  any 
case  the  insoluble  phosphate  is  not  counted  in  the 
super  in  fixing  the  price  of  the  latter. 

The  mixture  at  this  point  is  doughy,  but  the 
great  quantity  of  plaster  formed  in  the  first  reaction 
combines  itself  with  the  water  and  the  whole 
becomes  hard  through  the  formation  of  gypsum. 
Before  being  applied  to  agricultural  uses  the 
superphosphate  should  first  be  ground. 

Nearly  800,000  tons  of  superphosphate  are  made 

50 


Superphosphates 

every  year  in  England,  the  phosphates  for  which 
come  from  Florida,  Algiers,  and  Tunis.  There  are 
many  other  sources  of  mineral  phosphates  as  well, 
but  these  give  the  best  results.  The  favourable 
action  of  superphosphates,  especially  on  leguminous 
plants  and  on  many  root  crops,  is  seconded  by  the 
presence  of  gypsum,  of  which  we  will  describe  the 
effect  on  page  141. 

Thus  nearly  the  whole  of  the  phosphoric  acids  m 
superphosphates  are  soluble  in  water,  but  in  some 
superphosphates,  particularly  when  they  contam 
compounds  of  iron  and  aluminium,  the  phosphate 
reverts  when  stored  ;  that  is  to  say,  that  though  it 
was  monocalcic  and  soluble  in  water  [CaH4(P04)2]  it 
returns  almost  to  a  bicalcic  phosphate  [Ca2H2(P04)2], 
which  is  not  soluble  in  water,  but  is  so  in  weak 
acids. 

Perhaps  too  much  importance  has  been  attached 
to  this  fact,  because  in  reality  this  bicalcic  phosphate 
can  be  regarded  as  workably  assimilable  ;  besides 
in  the  soil  the  monocalcic  phosphate  quickly  returns 
to  the  bicalcic  form,  or  something  corresponding. 
The  only  advantage  the  monocalcic  presents  over 
the  bicalcic  is  that  the  former  being  dissolved  by  the 
rain  is  more  easily  and  completely  distributed  in  the 
soil,  up  to  the  time  that  it  is  fixed  by  the  carbonate 
of  lime  or  the  compounds  of  aluminium  or  iron 
in  the  soil.  If  rain  is  slow  in  coming,  however,  it 
will  be  already  fixed  and  no  longer  soluble. 

Superphosphate  will  be  decidedly  better  if  it 
contains  much  phosphoric  acid  [P2O5],  and  it  is 
obviously  wise  to  buy  the  richest,  because,  the  price 
being  gauged  by  the  imit,  transport  will  be  cheaper 

51 


Phosphates 

when  that  unit  is  contained  in  the  smallest  bulk. 
The  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid  [P0O5]  is  very 
variable,  ranging  from  25  to  40  per  cent,  or  50  to 
80  per  cent,  as  tribasic. 

The  difference  between  the  value  of  monocalcic 
phosphate,  superphosphate,  and  tricalcic  phosphate 
of  mineral  phosphates,  or  of  bones,  is  very  great, 
being  proportionate  to  their  solubility  and  their 
assimilability. 

In  many  soils,  even  when  tricalcic  phosphate 
is  used  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder  it  is  nearly 
inassimilable,  and  will  be  found  of  little  value. 
This  would  be  the  case  in  soils  poor  in  humus,  also 
in  calcareous  soils,  even  although  these  contained 
only  a  small  proportion  of  lime  or  magnesia. 

It  is  not  suitable  for  such  soils,  and  should  be 
used  rather  as  an  improvement  than  as  a  manure, 
at  a  proportionate  price  of  a  quarter,  a  fifth,  or 
even  less  than  that  of  super. 

Superphosphate  is  a  manure  of  immediate  action 
and  can  be  applied  simultaneously  with  sowing. 
Sometimes  it  is  used  as  a  top  dressing,  although  it  is 
preferable  to  harrow  it  in.  It  will  give  good  results 
with  nearly  all  crops ;  but  it  is  most  effective  on 
turnips,  because  they  find  it  more  difficult  than 
any  other  plants  to  absorb  the  phosphoric  acid  of 
the  soil,  and  so  require  a  very  assimilable  form  of  it. 

Since,  however,  super  is  somewhat  acid  itself, 
basic  slag  should  be  used  in  preference  for  pastures 
on  very  humiferous  acid  soil  poor  in  lime.  It  should 
not  be  applied  to  very  acid  land,  because,  being 
soluble  and  finding  no  arresting  base,  it  would 
simply  be  washed  into  the  drainage  and  wasted. 

52 


Bone  Manures 

Generally  there  is  no  need  to  fear  this  loss.  Super- 
phosphate is  the  phosphate  manure  for  catch  crops. 
The  quantities  manufactured  annually  show  that 
it  is  in  general  use.  It  ought  to  be  used  more 
often  than  mineral  phosphates  and  compound 
manures,  which  still  occupy  too  important  a  place. 
For  the  value  of  phosphoric  acid  the  unit  type  is 
that  of  superphosphates. 

Bone  Manures. 

Bone  manures  are  thought  more  of  in  England 
than  in  any  other  country.  They  have  been  in 
use  a  long  time,  and  are  sold  in  every  conceivable 
form  ;  merely  more  or  less  finely  broken,  fermented, 
steamed,  distilled,  incinerated,  transformed  into 
superphosphates,  with  their  own  phosphates  pre- 
cipitated, and  so  on.  Because  of  the  great  demand 
for  them  their  price  is  quite  high  enough,  higher 
perhaps  than  is  justified  by  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  their  fertilising  elements.  In  fact,  seeing  that 
products  of  higher  value  and  cheaper  price  per  unit 
are  now  on  the  market,  they  ought  not  to  occupy 
the  position  they  have  held  so  long. 

Providing  they  have  not  undergone  any  chemical 
transformation,  bones  form  a  slow  manure,  the 
effect  of  which  is  felt  for  many  years,  one,  more- 
over, which  is  not  subjected  to  any  loss. 

When  they  first  came  into  use  they  were  rouglily 
ground,  without  any  cleaning  ;  later  on  they  were 
ground  more  finely  and  eventually  they  were  fer- 
mented by  putting  them  into  heaps  and  watering 
them  with  urine,  in  order  that  the  nitrogenous 
organic   matter   they   contained    should    be   made 

53 


Phosphates 

assimilable.  The  output  of  this  country,  although 
great — 60,000  tons — does  not  meet  the  demand,  so 
they  were  imported  from  India  and  very  largely 
from  the  Argentine,  but  also  from  Brazil,  Morocco, 
Egypt,  and  the  Continent,  and  within  recent  years 
the  total  importation  had  mounted  up  to  about 
50,000  tons  per  annum. 

The  Importance  of  Fineness. — This  is  a  matter 
of  the  very  first  importance,  far  more  so  than  is 
generally  imagined  ;  and  it  is  astounding  that  the 
demand  for  coarsely  ground  bones  is  still  so  great. 
A  difference  of  i  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  5  per  cent, 
phosphoric  acid  can  easily  be  sacrificed  to  fineness 
of  material,  and  in  spite  of  this  fineness  bone  will 
never  be  assimilated  in  a  single  year.  It  will 
generally  take  from  two  to  three  years.  For  this 
reason  it  is  not  a  manure  to  be  recommended. 

There  are  cases  where  finely  ground  bones  have 
given  very  good  results — in  acid  soils  for  example ; 
but  these  cases  are  the  exception  and  cannot  be  in 
any  way  regarded  as  a  general  rule. 

Green  Bodies. — It  is  not  economical  to  use  ground 
bones  green.  They  contain  too  much  fat  and  are 
not  easily  assimilable,  either  as  regards  phosphates 
or  nitrogenous  organic  matter.  The  phosphate  is 
in  the  tricalcic  form,  often  called  bone  phosphate. 
They  are  more  or  less  unevenly  ground,  but  are 
always  of  slow  and  incomplete  action,  and  con- 
sequently are  poor  value. 

Green  bones  when  dried  and  cleaned  of  their 
fat  contain  about  4  per  cent,  organic  nitrogen  and 
50  per  cent,  tricalcic  phosphate.  They  are  con- 
verted into — 

54 


Bone  Manures 

Bone  Meals  and  Bone  Dust  without  undergoing 
any  further  treatment.  Their  relative  values  depend 
upon  the  fineness  with  which  they  are  ground.  We 
have  quoted  elsewhere  the  analysis  of  badly  ground 
bones  given  as  manure  and  found  twenty  years 
afterwards  without  having  suffered  any  change  or 
yielded  any  of  their  fertilising  matter.  Honestly, 
they  are  of  very  little  value  as  manure  ;  also  they 
are  much  adulterated  with  neutral  materials  such 
as  sand,  bricks,  cinders,  etc. 

The  Bone  ]\Ieals  obtained  from  the  East  Indies 
and  the  River  Plate  are  of  about  the  same  value 
as  the  home  production. 

Steamed  Bone  Flour. — In  steamed  bone  flour 
the  bones  have  been  treated  with  steam,  partially 
extracting  the  nitrogenous  organic  matter  for  the 
purpose  of  making  glue.  The  bones,  themselves  very 
brittle,  are  reduced  to  an  exceedingly  fine  powder. 
As  a  rule  they  contain  more  phosphates  than  green 
bones,  sometimes  from  60  per  cent,  to  70  per  cent, 
and  less  nitrogenous  organic  matter,  of  which  there 
is  about  I  per  cent.  They  are  better  worth  buying 
by  the  unit  than  bone  meal,  because  there  is  less 
demand  for  them  ;  nevertheless,  they  are  a  better 
manure. 

Fermented  Bones. — Sometimes  pounded  bones 
are  fermented.  For  this  purpose  they  are  put  into 
a  heap  where  they  heat,  and  from  time  to  time  horse 
urine  is  poured  over  them.  After  some  weeks  they 
become  disintegrated.  A  good  deal  of  nitrogen  has 
been  lost  during  the  heating  and  fermenting  pro- 
cesses, but  the  phosphates  have  become  more 
assimilable. 

55 


Phosphates 

Dissolved  Bones. — It  was  Liebig  who  suggested 
treating  bones  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  Lawes  who 
utilised  the  suggestion  at  Deptford  in  1842-1845 
in  the  manufacture  of  his  superphosphate ;  but 
being  too  dear,  those  superphosphates  were 
abandoned  in  favour  of  the  cheaper  mineral  phos- 
phates. They  were  called  Bone  Superphosphates, 
and  contained  about  two-thirds  phosphoric  acid 
soluble  in  water,  while  the  remaining  third,  being 
parti}'  dicalcic  phosphate,  was  also  sufficiently 
assimilable.  Bones,  bone  ash,  and  spoilt  char  were 
utilised  in  their  manufacture,  and  being  expensive, 
the  manure  was,  in  time,  much  adulterated.  This 
bone  super  has  been  advantageously  and  economi- 
cally replaced  by  ordinary  super.  A  more  or  less 
diverse  series  of  dissolved  bone  compounds  was 
derived  from  it,  but  they  are  not  interesting. 

Bone  Ash. — This  is  chiefly  used  to  make  Bone 
Superphosphate  and  comes  from  abroad.  It  is 
rich  in  phosphate,  sometimes  containing  80  per  cent., 
and  gives  a  good  superphosphate,  but  is  still  too 
dear.  The  unit  of  phosphate  in  bone  super  ought 
not  to  cost  more  than  in  ordinary  super,  that  of 
phosphate  in  ordinary  bones  more  than  finely 
ground  mineral  phosphates,  or  that  of  steamed  bone 
flour  more  than  reverted  super.  Generally  speak- 
ing, bone  super  costs  too  much  and  therefore  cannot 
be  recommended. 

Animal  Charcoal. — For  a  long  time  animal  char- 
coal has  occupied  an  important  position  in  the  range 
of  manures  coming  from  bones.  To  make  it,  the 
bones  are  cleaned  and  then  burnt  in  a  closed 
receptacle.     During    the    calcination    part    of    the 

56 


Bone  Manures 

volatile  products,  including  among  others,  ammonia 
is  given  off  into  condensers.  What  is  left  of  the  bones 
is  converted  into  a  black  spongy  charcoal,  which 
makes  an  excellent  decolorant  for  coloured  organic 
matter.  It  was  used  before  sulphuric  anhydride 
[SO2]  was  introduced  in  the  decolouring  of  syrups, 
in  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  etc.  For  this  purpose 
it  was  finely  ground.  When  the  charcoal  had 
absorbed  all  that  it  could  retain  of  the  coloured 
organic  matter  of  the  juice,  it  was  calcined  afresh, 
and  was  used  again  and  again  till  it  lost  its 
sponginess,  when  it  was  called  "  spent  charcoal  " 
and  was  turned  to  agricultural  purposes. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  charcoal. 

ist.  That  of  sugar  manufacturers,  which  is 
the  most  plentiful.  It  makes  a  more  or  less  coarse 
powder,  containing  about  70  per  cent,  tricalcic 
phosphate,  10  to  20  per  cent,  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  practically  no  nitrogen.  This  is  used  to  greatest 
advantage  on  acid  lands,  where  it  gives  good  results. 
It  is  often  adulterated  with  earth,  ashes,  and  some- 
times even  by  the  addition  of  the  burnt  residue 
of  distillation,  in  which  case  it  contains  cyanures 
harmful  to  vegetation. 

2nd.  That  of  refineries,  which,  in  a  dry  state, 
forms  a  fine  powder.  This  charcoal  holds  a 
variable  amount  of  tricalcic  phosphate,  generally 
between  50  and  70  per  cent.  It  also  contains 
I  to  3  per  cent,  nitrogen.  It  is  very  easily 
adulterated,  since  its  texture  easily  hides  foreign 
matters,  such  as  black  peat,  earth,  wood -charcoal, 
charcoal  dust,  etc. 

These   two   animal   charcoals   are   often    used 

57 


Phosphates 

directly  in  agriculture,  because  ol  their  spongy 
texture  which  the  rootlets  can  penetrate,  and  so 
give  appreciable  results.  Their  value  is  variable, 
according  to  the  way  in  which  they  are  used  and 
their  richness  in  fertilising  elements.  Their  action 
is  not  so  slow  as  that  of  many  tricalcic  phosphates, 
but  generally  they  are  turned  into  superphosphates, 
being  monocalcic  phosphates  of  high  value  and 
eminently  assimilable. 

They  should  never  be  bought  except  under 
analysis. 

Deglutinised  or  Steamed  Bones. — The  name  of 
this  manure  comes  from  the  process  of  deglu- 
tinising  bones  by  submitting  them  to  the  steam  of 
super-heated  water.  In  this  process,  as  in  the 
manufacture  of  animal  charcoal,  the  bones  have 
been  previously  degreased.  The  gelatine  which  is 
obtained  from  them  constitutes  nearly  half  of  the 
nitrogenous  organic  matter,  often  even  more ; 
so  that  steamed  bones  are  much  poorer  in  nitrogen 
than  green  or  fermented  bones.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  contain  more  phosphates,  the  proportions 
being  about  0*9  to  1-5  nitrogen,  and  from  60  to  70 
tricalcic  phosphates. 

Steamed  bone  is  very  easily  and  completely 
pulverised,  the  resulting  powder  being  known  as 
Stemned  Bone  Flour,  which  is  the  finest  bone 
manure,  although  the  phosphate  is  in  a  tricalcic 
form.  On  account  of  its  fineness,  however,  this 
manure  is  generally  comparatively  assimilable,  and 
although  the  value  of  the  imit  is  sensibly  less  than 
in  superphosphate,  it  may  be  used  with  advemtage, 
especially  in  light  acid  soils. 

58 


Precipitated  Phosphate 

It  is  sometimes  mixed  with  superphosphate,  but 
we  do  not  recommend  the  mixture,  because  generally 
it  only  represents  a  very  small  proportion  of  super- 
phosphate to  the  bone  flour. 

It  is  better  to  transform  it  mto  superphosphate 
of  bone  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid,  when  it  con- 
stitutes a  phosphatic  manure  of  the  finest  quality. 
It  is  sometimes  adulterated  by  the  addition  of 
gypsum,  mineral  phosphates,  or  marl. 

Bone  Ashes. 

Bone  ashes  come  from  the  Argentine,  and  are 
obtained  by  burning  bones  which  are  found  there, 
sometimes  m  very  large  beds.  They  contain  on  an 
average  72  to  73  per  cent,  of  tribasic  phosphate. 
In  this  capacity  they  ought  only  to  be  employed 
on  acid  lands  and  should  never  be  expensive. 
Transformed  into  superphosphates,  they  make  a 
good  manure,  and  should  then  be  bought  according 
to  the  unit  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid.  They 
should  always  be  bought  on  analysis,  because  they 
generally  contain  many  impurities. 

Precipitated  Phosphate. 

This  is  a  product  obtamed  by  precipitating  with 
milk  of  lime  the  phosphate  produced  by  treating 
bones  with  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  a  fine  white 
powder  containing  about  40  per  cent,  phosphoric 
acid.  The  process  which  is  carried  on  in  connection 
with  the  gelatine  industry  is  as  follows.  The  mineral 
matter  of  the  bones  is  solubilised  by  means  of  a 
considerable  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid.  Little 
by  little  milk  of  lime  is  added  to  this  solution  and 

59 


Phosphates 

stirred  constantly,  and  the  result  is  a  precipitate  of 
bi-  and  tricalcic  phosphates  and  some  foreign  matter. 
The  precipitate  is  then  dried  at  a  low  temperature. 
When  it  has  been  properly  made  it  ought  to  contain 
only  a  little  tricalcic  phosphate. 

This  chemical  phosphate  is  of  a  fineness  im- 
possible to  obtain  by  grinding.  It  is,  owing 
to  its  bicalcic  form  (which  is  soluble  in  citrate  of 
ammonia),  and  also  to  its  extreme  fineness  that  its 
action  is  so  favourable.  The  tricalcic  phosphate 
is  not  taken  into  account  in  fixing  its  price.  It 
should  only  be  bought  on  analysis,  and  when  the 
price  of  the  unit  is  not  higher  than  that  of  slag. 

Basic  Slag,^  Slag,  Thomas's  Slag. 

This  is  a  bye-product  of  manufactured  steel 
from  minerals  which  contain  phosphoric  acid.  Iron 
containing  phosphoric  acid  breaks  easily  under  the 
hammer  when  cold.  Therefore  before  minerals  con- 
taining this  acid  can  be  utilised  the  acid  must  be 
eliminated.  Thomas  and  Gilchrist  discovered  the 
way  to  extract  phosphate  from  iron  ore  in  1878,  and 
at  first  the  residue  or  slag  was  simply  thrown  away. 
Small  heaped-up  mountains  of  it  could  be  seen 
outside  steel  works.  After  conclusive  trials,  how- 
ever, it  was  utilised  as  manure. 

To  extract  the  phosphate  and  obtain  the  slag 
the  inside  of  a  Bessemer  converter  is  lined  with 
limestone,  and  lime  is  also  added  to  the  molten 
contents.  Then  a  very  strong  current  of  air  forced 
into  the  mass  oxidises  the  impurities  and  they  are 

^  It  is  called  "  basic  "  because  it  contains  3  or  more  per  cent. 
of  free  lime,  of  the  total  lime  contents  of  35-55' 

60 


Basic  Slag,  Slag,  Thomas's  Slag 

taken  up  in  the  dross  as  silicates  and  other  forms 
of  phosphate.  This  floating  dross  is  drawn  off  and 
the  purified  iron  is  left.  The  dross  is  black,  very 
hard,  and  heavy.  It  is  difficult  to  grind,  but  it 
has  to  be  ground  very  finely,  because  its  fineness  is 
an  important  feature  of  the  product.  Two  qualities 
of  fineness  are  made — one  of  50  per  cent,  and  one  of 
80  per  cent.,  that  is  to  say,  qualities  of  which 
respectively  50  per  cent,  and  80  per  cent,  will  pass 
through  a  sieve  having  about  10,000  regular  holes 
to  the  square  inch.  The  phosphate,  which  forms  in 
the  slag  at  a  temperature  of  from  1800°  to  2000° 
Centigrade,  is  generally  understood  to  be  in  the 
tetrabasic  form  [Ca04P205],  soluble  in  citric — 
which  is  a  weak  acid  ;  whilst  tribasic  phosphates 
are  only  soluble  in  strong  acids,  which  obviously 
makes  a  great  difference.  The  tetrabasic  form  or 
any  form  other  than  tribasic  in  which  phosphoric 
acid  occurs  is  very  useful,  since  it  represents  a 
reasonable  degree  of  assimilability ;  but  all  the 
phosphate  is  not  tetrabasic,  and  another  portion  is 
present  in  the  tribasic  form. 

To  determine  the  solubility  of  the  phosphate 
the  solubility  in  citric  acid  is  fixed  at  2  per  cent., 
which  corresponds  approximately  to  the  phosphoric 
acid  absorbed  by  plants.  With  regard  both  to 
solubility  and  assimilability,  tetracalcic  phosphate 
is  very  similar  to  the  bicalcic  phosphate  of  preci- 
pitated phosphate,  and  to  basic  and  reverted  super- 
phosphate. Even  if  it  acts  less  rapidly  than 
superphosphate  it  does  nevertheless  act  in  the  same 
year.  Turnips,  which  do  not  easily  extract  phosphoric 
acid  from  its  combinations,  but  which  at  the  same 

61 


Phosphates 

time  requiring  a  large  quantity  of  it,  and  should 
therefore  receive  it  in  a  suificiently  assimilable  form, 
generally  give  very  good  results  with  slag,  especially 
in  slightly  acid  ground. 

Obviously  all  the  assimilable  phosphate  is  not 
in  a  tetracalcic  form.  It  is  probably  present  also 
in  combination  with  silicate,  in  a  form  of  double 
salt. 

Another  portion  of  the  phosphoric  acid  is  in- 
soluble, that  is,  soluble  only  in  strong  acids — and 
sometimes  very  inassimilable. 

The  value  of  basic  slag  depends  very  largely, 
therefore,  on  the  proportion  of  assimilable  or  in- 
assimilable  phosphates,  and  it  should  never  be  bought 
on  the  total  content  of  phosphoric  acid  alone. 
When  the  phosphoric  acid  is  only  soluble  in  strong 
acids,  it  should  be  regarded  as  inassimilable,  or 
so  slowly  assimilable  that  it  ought  not  to  be  reckoned 
in  the  price  of  the  manure.  Only  solubility  in 
citric  acid  should  be  accepted  as  a  basis  on  which  to 
determine  the  price. 

Again,  the  value  of  slag  is  in  direct  relation 
to  its  fineness.  Phosphate,  even  though  soluble 
in  citric  acid,  is  not  easily  assimilated  in  coarse 
slag,  and  may  not  be  assimilable  at  all,  seeing  the 
extreme  hardness  of  the  particles.  But  we  have 
explained  the  desirability  of  fineness  in  manures  in 
a  preceding  chapter.  Here  it  is  sufficient  to  say 
that  the  degree  of  fineness  will  be  another  factor  in 
deciding  the  purchasing  value. 

The  lime  present  in  slag  also  plays  a  very  im- 
portant part.  In  neutral  soils  or  slightly  acid  soils 
which  are  deficient  in  lime,  it  supplies  the  foundation 

62 


Basic  Slag,  Slag,  Thomas's  Slag 

necessary  for  nitrification  and  for  the  fixation  of 
ammonia  and  potash.     Also  it  neutralises  the  acids 
in  the  soil.     It  is  thanks  to  this  quality  that  basic 
slag  is  so  valuable  in  many  soils,  and  that  its  use  is 
so  advisable  and  ought  to  be  popularised.    It  is 
the  phosphatic  manure  par  excellence  for  acid  land 
in  general,  but  its  action  is  appreciable  everywhere. 
For  a  long  time  it  was  recommended,  without 
any  particular  reason,  to  apply  slag  in  November, 
regardless  of  the  fact  that  that  month  was  either  not 
soon  enough,  or  too  soon.     Slag  by  itself  cannot 
penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil.     It  is  useless,  there- 
fore, to  apply  it  with  this  object  m   November. 
In   good   slag   the   phosphoric   acid    is   soluble   in 
weak  acids,  but  the  chemical  reactions  of  the  soil 
are  reduced  to  a  minimum  in  the  \vinter,  and  the 
physiological  reactions  are  reduced  to  nothing  at 
all,  the  plants  not  being  in  a  state  of  vegetation. 
The  assimilability  of  the  phosphates  of  the  slag 
are,  above  all  things,  dependent  on  the  physiological 
action  of  the  roots  of  plants  ;    that  is  why  their 
effect  is  progressive.     \\Tien  the  phosphate  of  the 
slag  is  not  assimilable  it  would  become  so  better  in 
summer  than  in  winter. 

On  pastures  it  will  give  good  results,  even  in 
peaty  soils  where  the  superphosphates  may  be  lost 
in  the  drains.  It  is  also  the  manure  for  sandy  soils, 
and  at  the  same  time  for  those  which  lack  phosphoric 
acid  and  limestone. 

It  is  basic  slag  that  has  made  it  possible,  or  at 
any  rate  has  greatly  helped,  to  reclaim  heather 
land,  and  it  is  to  basic  slag  that  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  Germany  are  indebted   for  their  progress  in 

63 


Phosphates 

this  work.  We  do  not  consider  that  it  is  used 
sufficiently  in  England,  although  the  economy 
of  employing  it  has  been  shown  by  numerous 
demonstrations. 

There  is  any  amount  of  waste  land  only  requiring 
to  be  slagged  to  be  brought  under  cultivation.  Its 
use  is  not  justified  simply  because  of  its  reputation, 
but  because  that  reputation  is  genuine,  and  because, 
moreover,  the  price  is  reasonable,  being  generally 
a  quarter  less  based  on  the  unit  than  that  of  the 
unit  in  superphosphate,  and  not  so  dear  as  that  of 
bone  meals. 

It  usually  contains  from  9  to  18  per  cent,  phos- 
phoric acid,  corresponding  to  20  to  40  per  cent, 
tribasic  phosphate.  Sometimes,  however,  the  con- 
tent of  phosphoric  acid  is  as  much  as  22  per  cent, 
or  48  per  cent,  tribasic  and  more,  according  to  the 
kind  of  mineral  from  which  the  slag  is  derived. 

Here  is  its  average  composition  : — 


Phosphoric  acid 

9-20  per  cent 

Lime 

. .     35-55 

Iron  compounds  (oxides) 

..     10-20        „ 

Silica 

••       5-15 

Magnesia 

..       2-5 

Aluminium 

I-IO            „ 

Sulphuric  acid 

..      0-2-    I 

Basic  slag  must  always  be  bought  on  analysis 
and  with  a  guarantee  of  the  quantity  of  P2O5 
soluble  in  citric  acid.  The  gross  content  of  phos- 
phoric acid  can  never  be  accepted  as  the  price  basis. 
If  it  were  it  would  be  an  incentive  to  adulteration 
with  insoluble  phosphates.  The  purchaser  should 
see,  therefore,  that  the  phosphates  are  all  original, 

64 


Basic  Slag,  Slag,  Thomas's  Slag 

and,  for  the  reasons  stated  above,  always  buy  the 
richest  possible. 

On  pasture  slag  should  be  applied  in  January 
or  February.  We  must  point  out  here  that  very 
fine  basic  slag  of  good  quality  ought  not  to  be 
applied  earlier.  In  doing  so  there  is  a  risk  of  loss, 
since  it  is  here  used  as  a  top-dressing.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  we  have  seen  that  these  very  fine  particles  are 
the  best  slag,  also  that  they  are  most  easily  carried 
away  by  the  wind,  or  washed  away  by  heavy  rains, 
so  that  the  earlier  they  are  applied  the  greater  the 
risk  of  loss.  Moreover,  this  is  just  the  time  of  year 
when  the  grass  is  shortest,  so  that  the  manure  will 
be  most  easily  carried  away  by  heavy  rains. 

For  other  crops  the  slag  should  be  buried  by 
a  good  harrowing,  so  as  to  mix  it  thoroughly  with  the 
soil,  before  sowing.  In  this  case  no  loss  need  be 
feared.  It  should  never  be  given  to  ordinary  crops 
as  a  top  dressing.  On  clovers  it  is  better  to  give  a 
double  dose  at  the  time  of  sowing  the  crop  preceding 
the  clover,  so  that  it  can  be  well  distributed  in  the  soil. 

It  should  never  be  sown  in  windy  weather,  because 
the  best  and  finest  particles  will  fly  furthest.  They 
would  often  fall  from  lOO  to  150  yards  from  the 
place  for  which  they  were  intended,  and  be  of  no 
use  to  the  plants  that  ought  to  receive  them.  To 
prevent  slag  from  blowing  away  it  can  be  mixed  with 
kainite  the  day  before  it  is  used.  This  mixture, 
however,  will  become  hard,  and  therefore  ought  to 
be  used  at  once. 

Slag  should  be  spread  by  machine  for  preference. 
If  sown  broadcast  the  sower  should  take  care  not 
to  work  against  the  wind,  because  the  lime  in  the 

65  F 


Phosphates 

slag  may  cause  a  serious  irritation  to  the  eyes. 
He  should  be  provided  with  motor  goggles,  if 
necessary. 

When  the  slag  has  caked  in  hard  clods  because 
of  careless  storage  it  must  first  be  finely  pounded 
with  a  heavy  hammer.  The  lumps  must  not  be 
thrown  on  the  land  as  they  are. 

The  sacks  of  slag  should  never  be  stood  on  the 
ground  in  the  storing  place,  but  placed  on  a  plank 
platform. 

Slag  is  adulterated  with  many  things,  of  which 
some  are  inactive — such  as  ground  cinders,  or  the 
waste  from  coal  mines,  and  others  having  very  little 
action — such  as  mineral  phosphates. 

The  numerous  trials  which  have  been  carried 
out  in  the  countries  where  basic  slag  is  largely  used 
have  demonstrated  its  excellence,  and  its  great 
value  as  a  manure. 

Basic  Superphosphate. 

Basic  superphosphate  is  simply  superphosphate 
to  which  basic  slag  has  been  added.  Since,  however, 
we  can  obtain  both  constituents  separately  when  it 
is  desirable  to  use  them,  basic  superphosphate  has 
the  usual  drawback  of  compound  manures — the  unit 
is  too  dear. 

It  has  been  argued  that  monocalcic  phosphate  is 
transformed  into  bicalcic  in  this  mixture.  As  we 
have  already  had  occasion  to  say,  apropos  of  reverted 
phosphates,  this  in  our  eyes  is  not  a  great  incon- 
venience, as  long  as  the  manure  is  not  given  as  a  top 
dressing  but  is  harrowed  in.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
when  the  soluble  phosphate  of  the  siiperphosphate 

66 


Coproliths 

is  put  in  the  soil  it  will  be  lost  by  drainage  if  it  cannot 
find  a  base  for  fixation,  or  becomes  bicalcic  and  in- 
soluble in  the  water,  and  the  oft-quoted  advantage 
or  solubility  of  superphosphate  is  reduced  to  nearly 
nothing,  since  it  must  first  have  rain  (which  does  not 
always  arrive)  to  help  its  dissemination,  the  dispersal 
by  reason  of  solubility,  by  the  water  in  the  soil,  being 
reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  practically  limited  to 
two  or  three  inches  of  the  top  soil,  because  of  its 
insolubilisation  by  the  bases. 

On  the  other  hand,  bicalcic  phosphate  is  very 
assimilable  by  plants,  so  that  reversion  ought  not 
to  be  regarded  as  an  obstacle  to  its  employment. 
If  it  were  not  too  dear  it  could  be  applied  to  any 
acid  land  where  superphosphate  cannot  be  used 
advantageously,  because  of  the  lime  in  the  basic 
slag.  But  it  must  be  noted  that  the  value  of  basic 
superphosphate  does  not  lie  in  the  total  phosphoric 
acid,  but  depends  very  largely  on  the  quality  of 
basic  slag  employed. 

If  the  farmer  understands  the  use  of  basic  slag 
and  superphosphate  he  need  not  employ  basic 
superphosphate. 

Coproliths. 

Coproliths  are  impure  mineral  phosphates,  pre- 
sented in  the  form  of  hard  nodules,  brown  or  reddish 
in  colour,  varying  in  size  from  a  pigeon's  egg  to  an 
ostrich's.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek, 
and  means  "  stones  of  dung."  They  are  fossil 
excrements  attributed  to  fishes  or  to  saurians 
that  lived  in  prehistoric  times,  and  are  found  in 
many    places    in    England,   notably    Suffolk    and 

67 


Phosphates 

Cambridgeshire,  also  in  Bucks,  Beds.,  Dorset,  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  etc. 

Lawes  used  them  in  1845  in  making  superphos- 
phates to  replace  bones  which  were  too  scarce  and 
too  dear.  Phosphate  is  present  in  the  tricalcic  form 
[Ca3(P04)2].  Their  least  value  of  phosphoric  acid 
[P2O5]  is  20  to  23  per  cent.,  with  some  considerable 
exceptions,  however,  as  they  sometimes  contain  from 
40  to  47  per  cent,  tricalcic  phosphate.  But  besides 
phosphate  of  lime  and  other  phosphates  they  also 
contain  sulphates,  carbonates,  fluoride,  etc.,  which 
make  the  manufacture  of  superphosphate  difficult. 
That  is  why  they  have  been  replaced  by  other 
phosphates  without  these  inconveniences.  The  Co- 
proliths  are  often  ground  very  finely,  and  used  as  a 
tribasic  phosphate  manure.  They  are  not  always 
suitable  for  this  purpose,  since  in  alkaline  or  simply 
neutral  soils,  they  will  have  very  little  effect.  But 
in  acid  soils  they  will  be  one  of  the  best  insoluble 
phosphates  to  use,  costing  less  than  bones,  and  giving 
almost  as  good  value. 


68 


CHAPTER   V 

Potassic  Manures  in  General 

The  Occurrence  and  Functions  of  Potash  in 
the  Soil. 

Setting  aside  farmyard  manure,  in  which  in  any 
case  there  is  a  great  loss  of  potash — often  more  than 
half — the  restoration  of  potash  taken  from  the  soil 
or  the  supplying  of  natural  deficiencies  was  only 
accomplished  for  a  long  time  past  by  the  application 
of  wood  ashes,  seaweed  ash,  burnt  weeds,  and  salts 
obtained  from  the  French  Midi  and  nitre  beds.  Peat 
ash  contains  practically  no  potash. 

The  sources  were  quite  insufficient  either  to  make 
good  deficiencies  caused  by  the  crops  sold,  or  the 
losses  in  the  manure ;  also  a  part  of  the  potash 
derived  from  them  is  still  required  in  the  manu- 
facture of  glass,  soft  soap,  and  gunpowder. 

There  is  a  lack  of  potash  therefore  in  the 
majority  of  soils,  and  in  some — those  very  acid  and 
peaty  for  example — there  may  even  be  none  at  all. 
We  shall  see  how  these  acid  soils  dissolve  the 
potash :  in  the  absence  of  lime  the  humus  cannot 
retain  it  and  it  is  carried  off  by  the  rain  water. 
Such  soils  therefore  require  potash  as  well  as  lime, 

69 


Potassic  Manures  in  General 

but  the  moment  there  is  sufficient  lime  in  the  ground 
no  further  loss  of  potash  will  take  place. 

Sandy  soils  with  little  or  no  humus  are  equally 
unable  to  hold  their  potassic  salts.  But  here  it  is 
not  sufficient  only  to  apply  lime,  because  there  is 
not  enough  humus  to  retain  the  potash,  or  to 
prevent  loss.  It  will  be  wiser  in  this  kind  of  land 
to  use  only  a  little  potassic  manure  at  a  time — just 
what  is  necessary  for  the  crop,  and  not  to  apply  it 
a  long  time  in  advance.  For  if  in  the  generality  of 
cases  there  is  little  or  no  loss  of  potash,  in  the  two 
cited  the  total  loss  will  be  very  serious,  that  is  if 
there  is  an  insufficiency  of  humus  and  lime. 

Forms  in  which  Potash  is  found. 

Potash  is  usually  restored  to  the  soil  in  one  of  the 
three  following  forms  : 

ist.  In  the  form  of  farmyard  manure  or  seaweed. 

2nd.  In  the  form  of  ash. 

3rd.  In  the  form  of  chemical  manure. 

Actually  we  have  a  great  variety  of  potassic 
manures,  the  source  of  the  majority,  however,  being 
the  mines  at  Stassfurt  in  Germany  ;  and  for  many 
years  past  Leopold's  Hall  has  been  the  station 
whence  an  enormous  bulk  of  potassic  products  has 
streamed  out  in  all  directions  all  over  the  world. 
The  exploitation  of  these  potassic  salts  began  in 
i860  and  developed  to  such  an  extent  that  in  1906 
about  5,200,000  tons,  or  1700  waggons  of  10  tons, 
were  exported  every  working  day.  In  1905  2,500,000 
tons  of  kainite  alone  were  sold,  yet  the  Stassfurt 
mines  still  contain  imcalculated  reserves.  They 
are  derived  from  the  evaporation  of  sea  water  in  a 

70 


Forms  in  which  Potash  is  Found 

deep  rather  narrow  ravine,  so  that  the  mines  contain 
a  greater  quantity  of  sea  salt  (NaCl)  than  of  potash, 
and  for  a  long  time  the  potassic  salts  were  regarded  as 
the  waste  product  of  chlorure  of  sodium. 

The  potassic  salts  are  generally  mixed  with 
magnesia.  That  is  why  in  crude  potassic — and  even 
in  prepared  salts,  common  salt  and  magnesia  are 
found  as  well  as  potash.  The  chief  crude  salts  are 
kainite  and  carnalite.  Kainite  is  still  sold  imder  the 
names  of  Hartsalz  and  Schoenitc.  Kainite  is  used 
either  crude  or  burnt  to  red-heat  point  to  drive  out 
the  chlorure  of  magnesia,  and  then  is  distributed  in 
that  form  to  the  agriculturist. 

Caniallite  is  chiefly  converted  by  means  of  con- 
centration and  crystallisation,  or  by  the  reaction  of 
sulphuric  acid,  into  muriate  and  sulphate  of  potash, 
and  these  again  are  crude  salts. 

In  Glasgow  potash  is  obtained  from  seaweed. 
Beetroot  salins  (that  is  the  residue  of  molasses  after 
distillation — called  vinasses,  which  is  evaporated 
and  calcinated  and  then  is  called  salins)  yield  it, 
and  also  Yolk.  Very  often  a  product  is  sold  under 
the  name  of  sulphate  of  potash  which  is  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  a  mixture  of  all  sorts,  but  chiefly 
containing  different  chlorures. 

At  the  present  time,  when  the  need  of  potash  is 
being  more  strongly  felt  than  ever,  because  the  chief 
source  is  temporarily  barred,  other  existing  sources 
which  are  too  little  known  must  be  tapped  instead. 
Seaweed  burning,  for  instance,  can  be  carried  on  all 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  (the  weed  must  obviously  be 
burnt  because  otherwise  it  would  weigh  too  much), 
and  on  a  sufficiently  large  scale.    The  salines  of  the 

71 


Potassic  Manures  in  General 

French  Midi,  whence  it  can  be  brought  via  Marseilles, 
the  salins  of  beetroot,  etc.,  can  be  exploited,  and 
above  all  by  constructing  tanks  for  urme,  covering 
our  farmyard  manure,  and  so  checking  loss,  we  can 
reduce  the  necessity  of  looking  abroad  for  our  potash 
to  a  minimum. 

The  necessity  for  supplying  potash  to  the  soil  has 
been  questioned,  and  occasionally  even  doubted. 
Such  discussions  serve  no  purpose.  Many  soils  are 
in  real  need  of  it,  and  most  are  better  for  it,  but  in 
some  cases  the  ground  already  contains  sufficient. 

Manurial  Attributes  of  Potash. 

Still,  a  distinction  must  be  observed  with  regard 
to  the  nature  of  the  crops  on  which  it  is  tried,  one 
kind  being  able  to  assimilate  the  potassic  com- 
binations in  the  soil  more  easily  than  another. 
Furthermore,  in  some  cases  the  simultaneous  use  of 
other  manures  or  substances  acting  as  lime  does 
has  caused  the  immediate  utilisation  of  the  potash 
present. 

Potash  is  one  of  the  principle  elements — some- 
times nearly  predominant — in  the  ash  of  plants,  and 
it  must  be  restored  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the 
soil ;  only  in  its  application  certain  points  must  be 
observed. 

Commercial  potassic  manures  are  more  or  less 
corrosive  in  themselves.  Moreover,  they  are  fre- 
quently mixed  with  magnesium  salts  which  are 
actively  injurious  to  the  roots  of  vegetating  plants. 
That  is  why  these  compounds  are  generally  applied 
before  sowing,  and  sometimes  a  long  while  in 
advance  and  on  fallow,  so  that  the  rams  can  wash 

72 


Properties  of  Potash 

away  the  chlomre  of  magnesia  (which  is  very 
soluble  by  the  way)  before  the  seeds  begin  to 
germinate. 

Kainite  should  never  be  given  as  a  top  dressing 
to  a  growing  crop  or  it  will  kill  a  great  part  of  it. 

Potash  can  be  used  as  a  top  dressing  for  pasture 
land  and  clover  in  February  at  the  latest,  and  for 
preference  in  January  ;  and  should  never  be  applied 
after  the  first  cutting  of  clover. 

Properties  of  Potash. 

Potash  salts,  especially  the  chlorure,  are  very 
soluble  in  water,  but  in  spite  of  this  no  loss  need  be 
anticipated  as  long  as  there  is  limestone  in  the  soil, 
because  potash  is  very  quickly  rendered  indissoluble 
and  fixed  on  the  humates.  In  fact,  experiments 
made  at  Rothamstead  show  that  they  sink  very  little 
below  the  surface.  In  these  trials  nearly  the  whole 
quantity  could  be  located  within  ten  inches  of  the 
surface,  despite  the  fact  that  the  ploughings  of  many 
years  had  evidently  mixed  the  soil  very  thoroughly. 
That  is  why  it  is  advisible  to  harrow  in  potassic 
manures  well,  so  as  to  ensure  some  part  penetrating 
to  a  fair  depth  instead  of  letting  it  all  remain  near 
the  surface. 

If  an  application  of  kainite  is  followed  by  a  suffi- 
ciently prolonged  period  of  dry  weather  it  may 
happen  that  the  potash,  and  more  particularly  the 
chlorure  of  magnesia,  absorbing  all  the  moisture  in 
the  soil,  will  form  concentrated  solutions  which  are 
extremely  corrosive  and  destructive  to  plants.  This 
will  affect  pasture,  wheat,  etc.,  equally.  When 
applying  potash  to  soils  that  are  poor  in  limestone 

73 


Potassic  Manures 

it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a  preliminary  dressing 
of  the  latter  to  prevent  the  potash  being  lost.  More- 
over, it  will  be  necessary  to  renew  the  application, 
because  the  fixation  of  the  potash  will  cause  a  loss  of 
lime  in  the  drains.  In  practice  this  restitution  of 
lime  can  often  be  effected  by  the  employment  of  slag 
as  a  phosphatic  manure. 

Generally  speaking,  if  the  potassic  salts  are  dry 
the  colour  will  matter  little,  but  the  content  of  potash 
must  be  guaranteed,  and  the  purchaser  should  also 
ask  for  the  content  of  accessory  salts,  and  demand 
the  exact  name  of  the  manure  he  is  buying.  The 
believers  in  magnesia  as  a  manure,  for  example,  will 
be  contented  to  use  kainite,  which  will  give  them 
magnesia  in  very  large  quantities.  Kainite  itself 
is  not  much  adulterated,  but  it  is  sometimes  used  to 
adulterate  chlorure  and  sulphate  of  potash.  It  is 
also  occasionally  used  to  adulterate  nitrate  of  soda, 
and  this  fact  is  the  more  serious,  because,  nitrate 
generally  being  given  at  the  commencement  of 
vegetation,  the  kainite  may  then  injure  or  destroy 
the  crop. 

Kainite. 

Kainite,  the  best  known  potassic  manure,  is 
a  crude  salt,  mined  from  deep-seated  beds  at  Stass- 
furt,  in  Germany.  It  is  of  a  dirty  colour  generally, 
sometimes  pinkish,  but  the  colour  does  not  matter  ; 
the  kainite  is  equally  good  in  either  case. 

Crude  kainite  consists  of  various  more  or  less 
pure  salts,  mixed  after  coming  from  the  mine  to 
contain  a  proportion  of  from  12  to  13  per  cent, 
potash.     It  must  not  contain  less  than  12  per  cent., 

74 


Kainite 

and  is  generally  guaranteed  at  12 -4  per  cent. 
Formerly  it  was  considered  that  the  potash  it  con- 
tained was  present  under  the  form  of  sulphate. 
This  is  not  so.     It  is  in  the  form  of  chlorure. 

Kainite  contains  about  35  per  cent,  common 
salt  (NaCl)  ;  about  30  per  cent,  salts  of  magnesia, 
especially  sulphate,  but  often  also  chlorure ;  12*5 
per  cent,  water  of  crystallisation,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  impurities. 

Considerable  quantities  are  sold  annually  under 
the  names  of  Kainite,  Hartsalz,  and  Schoenite.  In 
1905  there  was  an  output  of  nearly  2,500,000  metric 
tons. 

Care  must  always  be  taken  that  the  kainite  does 
not  contain  chlorure  of  magnesia,  because  that  is 
not  only  harmful  to  vegetation,  but,  being  de- 
liquescent, impairs  the  keeping  qualities  of  the 
manure.  ^Vhen  the  kamite  has  become  hardened 
by  storing,  it  is  very  difficult  to  apply,  and  the 
lumps  must  first  be  crushed  by  means  of  a  mattock 
or  spade,  or,  if  large  quantities  are  being  employed, 
by  a  grinding  machine. 

Calcined  kainite,  from  which  the  chlorure  of 
magnesia  has  been  expelled  by  heat,  can  be  bought, 
and  is  to  be  preferred.  Kainite  is  the  potassic 
manure  in  which  the  potash  is  the  cheapest  per  unit 
at  the  place  of  origin,  but  because  of  its  evanes- 
cence preference  should  be  given  to  concentrated 
chlorures  of  potash  in  places  far  from  the  source. 
In  the  former  case  the  cost  of  transport  has  to  be 
paid  on  substances  which  do  not  constitute  manure. 

Kainite  is  very  suitable  for  pastures,  clover,  beet- 
root, com,  etc. 

75 


Potassic  Manures 

Carnallite. 

This  is  a  crude  salt  of  potash  extracted  at 
Stassfurt.  It  is  of  variable  colour,  according  to  the 
impurities  which  it  contains.  It  is  red,  yellow,  grey, 
black,  often  pink,  etc.  It  is  deliquescent,  therefore 
difficult  to  preserve.  Crude  carnallite  gives  bad 
results  when  applied  to  growing  crops,  being  corrosive 
because  of  the  chlorure  of  magnesia  which  it  contains. 
Employed  in  this  form  it  ought  to  be  buried  a  long 
time  in  advance  so  as  to  destroy  its  harmful  cha- 
racteristics, which  are  thus  eliminated  before  sowing 
or  planting.  If  used  fresh  it  is  destructive  to  any 
crop.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
chlorine  and  sulphate  and  potash.  It  is  a  compound 
of  chlorure  of  potash  and  of  magnesia  (KClMgCl2 
6H2O)  of  water,  chlorure  of  soda,  and  kieserite. 
Nearly  2,500,000  tons  per  annum  are  extracted  and 
used,  for  the  greater  part  in  the  manufacture  of 
chlorure  of  potash.  For  this  purpose  a  solution  of 
chlorure  of  magnesia  (MgCl2)  is  saturated  in  heat, 
and  the  carnallite  dissolved  in  it.  The  KCl  crystal- 
lises in  cooling. 

Sylvinite. 

This  is  a  mixture  of  common  salt  and  chlorure  of 
potash,  etc.,  extracted  at  Stassfurt.  As  it  is  not 
largely  exported,  it  is  of  no  particular  interest. 

Chlorure  or  Muriate  of  Potash. 

When  pure,  this  is  a  white  salt,  and  takes  the 
form  of  cubic  crystals.  It  is  very  soluble  in  water, 
and  has  a  salty  taste.    It  is  efflorescent,  in  distinc- 

76 


Chlorure  or  Muriate  of  Potash 

tion  to  the  chlorures  of  sodium  and  magnesium, 
which  are  deliquescent,  and  is  therefore  easier  to  keep 
than  kainite.  It  ordinarily  comes  from  Stassfurt, 
where  it  is  generally  obtained  by  the  treatment  of 
camallite.  The  manure  of  commerce  is  never  pure, 
it  always  contains  chlorure  of  sodium  (NaCl),  a  little 
chlorure  of  magnesium  (MgCU),  a  little  sulphate  of 
magnesia  (MgS04)  water,  and  some  impurities.  If  it 
were  pure  it  would  contain  63-1  per  cent.  K2O.  Com- 
mercially it  is  known  as  chlorure  of  potash  ;  ist, 
the  three  times  concentrated,  which  contains  nearly 
30  per  cent.  K2O,  and,  2nd,  the  five  times  concen- 
trated, which  contains  nearly  50  per  cent,  potash 
K2O.  This  is  the  better  form.  Chlorure  of  potash 
constitutes  the  concentrated  potassic  manure  most 
generally  used,  because  its  unit  of  K2O  is  less  dear 
than  in  the  concentrated  sulphate  [K2SO4],  more- 
over, the  advantage  of  using  it  at  a  great  distance 
from  its  place  of  origin  is  clear,  because  of  the  con- 
siderable cost  of  transport,  which  increases  the  price 
of  the  imit  of  K2O  in  the  poorer  product.  The  five 
times  concentrated  contains  three  times  as  much 
potash  as  kainite  ;  so  that  though  the  K2O  costs  less 
to  the  unit  in  the  kainite  at  the  place  of  origin,  it 
will  cost  more  at  its  destination,  because  it  will  take 
four  tons  of  kainite  to  equal  one  of  KCl.  Thus  the 
carriage  of  kainite  costs  more  than  the  cost  to  buy. 
Muriate  of  potash  is  also  obtained  from  salins  of 
beetroots  and  ashes  of  seaweed .  It  sometimes  contains 
55  per  cent.  K2O ;  very  often,  however,  it  does  not 
contain  more  than  50  per  cent.  Seaweed  ash  ought 
to  attract  more  attention  just  now  because  potash 
from  other  sources  is,  and  will  be,  difficult  to  obtain. 

77 


Potassic  Manures 

Another  source  of  supply  is  the  salt  marshes 
of  the  French  Midi,  which  contain  nearly  45  per 
cent.  K20-  These  muriates  can  be  distinguished 
because  they  contain  sulphate  of  magnesia  (MgS04) . 

When  buying,  a  guarantee  of  the  title  of  the 
manure  is  essential,  and  that  with  the  highest  title 
must  be  bought.  It  is  a  suitable  potassic  manure 
for  almost  every  kind  of  crop,  but  should  not 
be  used  on  tobacco,  because  of  its  chlorures,  while  it 
gives  a  poor  flavour  to  potatoes. 

Sulphate    of    Potash   or   Potassium    Sulphate 
(KoSOJ. 

This  is  in  the  form  of  a  white  salt  crystallised  in 
prisms,  and  thus  is  distinguished  from  KCl,  which 
crystallises  in  cubes.  The  crystals  resist  the  action 
of  the  air ;  they  have  a  salt  taste  with  a  bitterness 
which  also  distinguishes  them  from  KCl,  and  more- 
over they  are  relatively  less  soluble  in  water. 

The  manure  is  made  by  making  sulphuric  acid 
(H2SO4)  react  on  chlorure  of  potash  (KCl)  or  on 
carbonate  of  potash  (K2CO3).  The  chief  source  of 
supply  of  sulphate  of  potash  is  still  the  beds 
of  Stassfurt.  It  is  obtained  by  the  treatment  of 
carnallite,  and  contains  nearly  50  per  cent. 
K2O. 

In  France  it  is  made  from  the  salins  of  beet- 
root and  then  contains  nearly  50  per  cent,  potash. 

It  has  also  been  made  in  Scotland  from  seaweed 
ash. 

This  sulphate  is  the  potassic  manure  for  tobacco, 
because  it  contains  no  chlorure,  which  is  injurious 
to  the  quality  of  that  crop. 

73 


Nitrate  of  Potash  (KNO,) 

Also  it  does  not  give  potatoes  the  bad  taste 
which  KCl  gives.  For  these  two  crops  one  ought 
always  to  have  a  guarantee  that  there  is  no  chlorure 
in  the  manure. 

In  K2SO4  the  unit  of  potash  costs  even  more  than 
in  KCl,  because  the  latter  is  more  easy  to  prepare, 
and  the  former  is  in  greater  industrial  demand.  It 
is  the  dearest  of  the  potassic  manures,  nitrate  of 
potash  [KNO3]  being  rarely  employed. 

Being  so  dear,  it  is  sometimes  adulterated  with 
chlorure  of  sodium,  sulphate  of  sodium,  or  crude 
Stassfurt  salts  just  like  KCl. 

Its  use  is  limited  to  tobacco  and  potatoes. 

Nitrate  of  Potash  (KNO3). 

This  is  still  called  Nitre  or  Saltpetre.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  white  crystals  and  light  prisms. 

It  is  very  soluble  in  water  and  has  a  piquant 
taste,  and,  if  thro^^Tl  on  to  a  red-hot  shovel,  fuses 
without  lighting. 

It  is  found  in  certain  parts  of  India,  where  it  is 
formed  from  organic  matters  in  a  soil  rich  in  potash. 
The  product  evidently  is  not  pure.  England  has 
dra\\Ti  on  the  Indian  supplies  for  a  long  time,  but 
now  it  is  generally  made  by  the  reaction  of  chlorure 
of  potash  on  nitrate  of  soda.  The  unit  of  nitrogen 
and  of  potash  respectively  will  then  be  of  superior 
value  to  that  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  chlorure  of 
potash.  Its  general  use  is  not  justified  on  account 
of  its  price. 

Formerly  it  was  made  in  nitre  beds.  These  were 
layers  of  horse  manure  well  aerated,  and  watered 
with  urine,  in  which  wood  ashes  were  mixed  and  the 

79 


Potassic  Manures 

potash  from  the  ashes  absorbed  the  nitric  acid  which 
was  formed. 

In  olden  times  nitrate  of  potash  was  chiefly 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  and  is 
still  used  in  some  powders,  and  for  fireworks,  etc. 

Because  of  its  industrial  usefulness  the  price 
has  always  been  too  high  to  permit  of  its  being  used 
in  agriculture,  unless  in  the  form  of  crude  saltpetre, 
containing  from  5  to  20  per  cent,  impurities. 

Only  tobacco  and  certain  vegetables  would 
repay  its  application.  Tobacco  especially  likes  it 
because  of  the  quantity  of  potash  and  the  absence 
of  chlorures.  The  relation  between  the  potash  and 
the  nitrogen  is  not  favourable.  It  generally  con- 
tains 13  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  44  per  cent,  potash. 

On  account  of  its  high  price  nitrate  of  potash  is 
subject  to  adulteration  with  many  substances,  such 
as  chlorure  of  potash,  sulphate  of  potash,  nitrate  of 
soda,  and  even  chlorure  of  soda. 

Carbonate  of  Potash  [KoCOg]. 

This  is  a  white  salt  crystallised  and  caustic. 
It  is  the  potash  of  commerce  and  is  used  chiefly  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass  and  of  soft  soap.  This  makes 
its  price  generally  too  high  for  agricultural  purposes. 

It  is  obtained  from  various  sources,  such  as  from 
the  decomposition  of  sulphates,  when  it  contains 
nearly  85  per  cent,  carbonate  of  potash,  besides 
3  per  cent,  chlorure  of  potash  and  2  per  cent, 
sulphate ;  and  from  Yolk,  when  it  contains  75  per 
cent,  carbonate,  4  per  cent,  sulphate,  and  7  per  cent, 
chlorure  of  potash. 

The  salins  of  beetroot  produce  it,  as  we  have 

80 


Yolk 

seen,  and  the  residue  of  distillery  from  molasses, 
which  gives  35  per  cent,  carbonate,  17  per  cent, 
chlorure,  and  6  per  cent,  sulphate  of  potash.  These 
generally  contain  a  little  cyanure  and  are  therefore 
dangerous  to  use,  cyanure  being  a  violent  poison 
both  for  plants  and  animals.  Carbonate  of  potash 
is  most  frequently  given  to  plants  in  the  form  of 
wood  ashes.  This  contains  from  10  to  30  per  cent, 
potash,  and  along  with  the  carbonate  of  potash  a 
little  sulphate  is  also  found. 

Potash  Manure  Salt. 

Under  this  name  are  sold  more  or  less  impure 
chlorures  of  potash,  to  which  are  added  crude 
Stassfurt  salts. 

The  title  only  serves  to  hide  the  inferior  product, 
in  which  the  potash  is  generally  fixed  at  too  high  a 
price,  and  which  often  contains  a  harmful  chlorure  of 
magnesia. 

There  are  also  double  sulphates  of  potash,  and 
of  magnesia,  which  generally  contain  only  about 
27  per  cent,  potash.  These  are  often  adulterated 
too. 

These  preparations  do  not  usually  deserve  the 
attention  given  to  them. 

Yolk. 

This  is  the  deposit  caused  by  perspiration  which 
is  found  on  sheep's  wool.  It  is  soluble  in  water. 
The  raw  wool  contains  about  4  per  cent,  potash, 
so  that  the  water  in  which  sheep  are  washed  before 
shearing,  or  that  m  which  the  wool  is  washed  after 
shearing,  ought  to  be  put  on  the  land. 

81  G 


CHAPTER  VI 

Ashes  and  Soot 

Ashes. 

These  are  the  waste  products  left  from  combus- 
tion. They  contain  the  mineral  matters  of  the 
substances  burnt  and  vary  in  richness,  therefore, 
according  to  the  material  from  which  they  are 
derived. 

Wood  Ashes. — Wood  ashes  are  the  mineral 
matter  which  is  left  when  wood  is  burnt. 

The  quantity  of  ash  varies  considerably,  according 
to  the  vegetable  matter  from  which  it  is  produced. 

Thus,  leaves  in  lOO  parts  of  dry  matter  give 
15  per  cent,  ash ;  sapwood  in  100  parts  of  dry 
matter  give  3  per  cent,  ash ;  bark  in  100  parts  of 
dry  matter  give  7  per  cent,  ash ;  heart  in  100 
parts  of  dry  matter  give  5  per  cent.  ash. 

The  more  herbaceous  the  matter  the  higher  the 
proportion  of  ash. 

The  composition  of  ash  varies  considerably 
according  to  the  species  of  wood  from  which  it  is 
derived — oak,  birch,  fir,  etc.  ;  according  to  the  part 
of  the  wood  used — leaves,  bark,  etc. ;  and  also 
according  to  the  age  of  the  material  burnt. 

The  chlorures  being  eliminated  together  with  a 

82 


Wood  Ashes 

little  phosphoric  acid  by  incineration,  wood  ash 
can  be  used  on  tobacco.  It  is  kno\vn  that  tobacco 
bums  in  direct  proportion  to  the  potash  which  it 
contains,  and  inversely  in  proportion  to  the  chlorine. 

Birch  ash  is  poor  and  beech  relatively  poor  in 
potash — 10  per  cent.,  and  6  per  cent,  phosphoric 
acid.  Oak  is  a  little  richer  ;  but  poplar  is  as  rich  in 
potash  as  kainite — 12  to  13  per  cent.,  and  also  con- 
tains 10  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  while  elm  is 
very  rich,  containing  20  per  cent,  or  more  of  potash. 
Pine,  which  contains  about  10  per  cent,  of  potash, 
is  poor  in  phosphoric  acid,  only  containing  4  per 
cent. 

As  a  whole  wood  ash  contains  from  5  per  cent,  to 
25  per  cent.,  with  an  average  of  8  per  cent.  It 
forms  an  excellent  potassic  manure  frequently 
employed  as  a  top  dressing  after  the  first  cutting  of 
clover,  also  on  grass  land,  where  it  tends  to  promote 
clovers.     On  beans  it  is  also  very  useful. 

Formerly,  by  washing  and  purifying  the  ash, 
pearl  ash  was  produced,  which  was  at  that  time  the 
source  of  POTASH.  Ash  also  furnished  the  base 
which  fixed  the  nitric  acid  formed  in  the  nitre  beds, 
whence  was  obtained  the  nitrate  of  potash  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  gimpowder. 

Wood  Ashes. 

These  are  relatively  abundant  on  farms  where 
big  hedges  are  used.  The  ashes  should  be  sheltered 
from  rain  to  preserve  the  potash.  They  are  valu- 
able chiefly  for  their  potash,  and  less  so  for  their 
phosphoric  acid  and  carbonate  of  lime,  of  which 
there  is  only  a  small  quantity.     Potash  is  found  in 

83 


Ashes  and  Soot 

these  ashes  chiefly  in  the  form  of  carbonate,  also  as 
sulphate  and  to  a  small  extent  as  silicate. 

Washed  Cinders. 

Washed  cinders  from  bleaching  houses  or  soap 
works  can  be  employed  as  an  improvement.  They 
contain  about  40  per  cent,  carbonate  of  lime,  3  to  5 
per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  perhaps  up  to 
I  per  cent.  They  can  be  used  where  carbonate 
of  lime  might  be  applied,  in  strong  and  acid  soils 
generally,  or  even  as  a  top  dressing  to  pastures. 
Their  use  is  certainly  advantageous,  partly  owing 
to  the  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  they  contain. 
Their  carbonate  of  lime  is  not  so  active  as  that  of  the 
slag  of  defecations  from  sugar  refineries. 

Bone  Ash. 

Bone  ashes  come  from  the  Argentine,  and  are 
obtained  by  the  incineration  of  fossil  bones  which 
are  found  there  in  extensive  layers.  They  contain 
an  average  of  from  72  to  73  per  cent,  tribasic 
phosphate.  Therefore  they  should  only  be  used  on 
acid  soils.  Transformed  into  superphosphates  they 
make  an  excellent  manure.  They  should  be  bought 
by  the  unit  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid,  but  only 
on  analysis,  because  they  generally  contain  many 
impurities. 

Ashes  of  Peat. 

These  must  be  regarded  simply  as  improvements, 
since  generally  they  contain  only  lime,  first  in  the 
form  of  carbonate,  and,  secondly,  in  the  form  of 
sulphate.     Very  little  potash  or  phosphoric  acid  is 

84 


Ashes  of  Heather,  Furze,  and  Bracken 

found  in  them,  and  such  as  existed  in  the  plants 
from  which  the  peat  was  formed  have  disappeared 
in  the  subsoil.  These  ashes  are  used  on  pastures, 
but  chiefly  on  clover  and  lucerne.  Their  beneficial 
action  can  be  attributed  partly  to  the  sulphate  of 
lime.  Their  composition  is  variable  ;  the  content 
of  sulphate  ranging  from  15  to  40  per  cent.,  while 
they  contain  nearly  40  per  cent,  carbonate  of  lime. 
They  can  be  used  freely — from  20  to  100  cwt.  per 
acre.  To  obtain  the  ash  in  large  quantities,  as  soon 
as  the  peat  is  dry,  it  is  put  into  stacks  and  burned 
very  slowly,  when  about  i  ton  of  peat  will  produce 
I  cwt.  of  ash.  In  Holland  they  are  used  in  large 
quantities. 

Coal  Ashes. 

These  are  chiefly  used  as  an  improving  agent 
for  heavy  clayey  ground,  which  they  make  more 
workable,  and  for  low-lying  grounds,  which  they 
make  more  permeable.  They  evidently  only  operate 
by  the  elements  which  they  contain.  Coal  ashes 
are  much  poorer  than  anthracite  ashes,  and  these 
only  contain  16  per  cent,  of  lime ;  but  they  also 
contain  10  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid,  and  that  is 
where  their  use  comes  in.  They  contain  also  1-5 
per  cent,  of  magnesia,  0-5  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  0-6  per  cent,  potash.  Sifted  and  mixed  with 
garden  soil  they  make  it  earlier  because  of  their 
black  colour. 

Ashes  of  Heather,  Furze,  and  Bracken. 

Heather,  furze,  and  bracken  yield  an  ash  fairly 
rich  in  potash,  heather  being  the  poorest  with  about 

85 


Ashes  and  Soot 

15  per  cent.,  and  furze  the  richest  with  about  30 
per  cent.  Broom  and  furze  contain  as  well  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  presence  of 
broom  shows  phosphoric  acid  in  the  soil.  Bracken  is 
relatively  poor  in  phosphoric  acid.  When  the  plants 
are  young  and  not  too  strong,  instead  of  burning, 
it  is  better  to  bury  them  where  they  grow  by 
ploughing  in. 

Soot. 

Soot  is  the  deposit  on  the  sides  of  chimneys 
of  unburnt  particles,  driven  out  by  the  smoke  of 
our  hearths.  The  more  incomplete  the  combustion 
the  more  abundant  is  the  formation  of  soot — as  is 
easily  proved  by  looking  at  a  lamp.  Soot  contains 
potash,  and  phosphoric  acid  ;  but  above  all  ammonia 
and  sulphuric  acid  (that  is  to  say  sulphate  of 
ammonia)  are  formed.  The  composition  of  soot 
is  very  variable,  depending  upon  its  origin  ;  its 
action  on  vegetation  is  due  in  some  cases  to  sulphate 
of  ammonia,  or  equally  in  the  case  of  leguminosae 
to  free  sulphuric  acid. 

Some  soot  contains  great  quantities  of  potash, 
and  then  is  suitable  for  clovers.  It  also  contains 
from  I  to  3  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  As  the  quality 
varies  very  much,  however,  it  ought  to  be  bought 
cheaply,  or  on  analysis.  It  is  used  for  various 
crops,  wheat,  and  pasture,  but  above  all  it  is  recom- 
mended for  vegetable  culture.  It  can  be  used 
freely  in  the  garden,  where,  as  with  coal  ashes,  its 
black  colour  tends  to  make  the  soil  earlier. 


86 


CHAPTER  VII 
Magnesia  and  Silica 

Magnesia  [MgO]. 

The  question  of  magnesia  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed of  late  years  in  consequence  of  certain  trials 
intended  to  demonstrate  its  efficacy  as  manure. 
We  think  that  the  result  of  the  magnesia  in  these 
trials  had  not  been  satisfactorily  isolated  from  that 
of  complementary  agencies,  and  magnesia  cannot 
be  brought  into  general  use  without  danger,  because 
we  should  then  have  to  pay  more  for  kainite,  owing 
to  the  units  of  magnesia  contained  in  it.  In  the 
trials  made  the  introduction  of  magnesia  produced 
a  very  notable  increase  of  crops,  including  the 
potato  crop,  and  it  also  seemed  to  act  favourably 
on  the  size  and  quality  of  grain.  Magnesia  is  chiefly 
found  in  the  salts  of  Stassfurt  mixed  with  potash. 
Raw  kainite  contains  some  chloride  of  magnesia 
(MgCl2).  Calcined  kainite  contains  sulphate  of 
magnesia  in  considerable  quantities.  Chloride  of 
magnesia  is  caustic  and,  when  spread  on  growing 
crops,  bums  them.  Moreover,  in  sacks  it  is  de- 
liquescent— that  is  to  say  it  absorbs  the  moisture 
from  the  air  and  makes  kainite  difficult  to  keep. 
In   dolomite   magnesia   is    found    in   the   form   of 

87 


Magnesia  and  Silica 

carbonate.  It  is  not  advisable  to  use  lime  which 
contains  dolomite  on  growing  crops  because  the  lime 
carbonates  more  rapidly  than  the  magnesia,  which 
retains  its  caustic  properties  for  a  long  time,  and 
injures  the  vegetation. 

Sufficient  magnesia  therefore  can  be  given  to  the 
soil  without  having  recourse  to  any  special  manure, 
which  would  only  increase  the  price  of  the  crops. 

Silica  (Si02). 

Silica  is  found  in  many  plants.  Since,  however, 
when  consumed  it  remains  entirely  unchangeable 
in  the  droppings,  it  can  afford  no  nourishment  to 
plant  life.  It  therefore  is  not  a  manure,  and  it  is 
unnecessary  to  give  it  to  plants.  Its  work  consists 
chiefly  in  giving  solidity  and  hardness,  support  and 
protection,  to  that  part  of  the  plants  in  which  it 
is  always  found — near  the  periphery.  It  is  notably 
present  in  grasses,  and  in  cereals,  where  it  is  found 
in  the  stems,  the  leaves  and  the  husk  of  the  grain, 
but  never  in  the  region  of  growth  or  in  that 
reserved  for  the  embryo.  It  is  silica  that  makes 
the  hard  core  and  hard  underskin  sometimes  found 
in  pears.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  necessary  for  the 
growth  of  plants,  and  if  present  in  any  quantity  in 
sugar  beet  hinders  the  extraction  of  the  sugar. 


88 


CHAPTER  VIII 
Organic  Manures 

Need  to  ascertain  their  Relative  Value. 

Organic  manures,  including  farmyard  manure,  are 
of  great  utility,  because  in  addition  to  the  fertilis- 
ing substances  they  contain  in  a  more  or  less 
assimilable  form,  they  also  give  humus,  which  is 
indispensable  to  agriculture  and  the  advantages 
of  which  will  be  shown  later.  They  are  therefore 
very  valuable.  It  is  essential,  however,  to  ascertain 
their  relative  value  before  buying  them,  because 
some  of  them  really  contain  very  little  fertilising 
matter,  and  for  that  reason  are  scarcely  worth  the 
cost  of  transport.  In  others  the  fertilising  matter 
exists  in  a  badly  assimilable  form.  This  again 
lessens  their  value.  Others  lose  their  fertilising 
matter  in  storage.  There  is  also  a  need,  perhaps, 
to  take  precautions  against  the  possibility  of 
adulteration  especially  in  the  higher  priced  manures, 
and  to  get  a  guarantee  of  origin  or  of  the  form 
in  which  the  fertilising  agent  are  present,  if 
necessary. 

They  are  chiefly  used  m  the  maufacture  of  com- 
pound manures. 

89 


Organic  Manures 

Green  Manure. 

Green  manure  can  be  divided  into  two  categories, 
non-leguminous  and  leguminous.  The  non-legumi- 
nous are  more  often  sown  as  catch-crops  after  wheat. 
They  only  collect  the  nitrates  formed  in  the  soil 
at  the  end  of  the  season,  which  would  otherwise 
be  washed  away.  The  other  manures  necessary  to 
their  development  they  evidently  draw  from  the 
soil.  Their  utility,  therefore,  lies  in  conserving  the 
nitrogen,  but  they  also  play  an  important  part  in 
adding  humus  to  the  soil  and  thereby  making  a 
good  crop  possible  where  the  results  otherwise 
would  be  mediocre. 

As  non-leguminous  green  manure  turnips  or 
mustard  or  rape  are  usually  chosen,  but  spurry,  rye, 
and  buckwheat  are  also  used.  It  is  much  better 
to  have  a  non-leguminous  green  manure  than 
none  at  all,  but  recourse  to  leguminosa  is  infinitely 
to  be  preferred.  WTiile  capturing  the  nitrate  formed 
in  the  soil,  they  also  take  possession,  by  means  of 
bacteria  located  in  the  nodules  of  their  roots,  of 
the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  assimilate  it,  thus 
accumulating  in  the  stem  and  the  roots  of  the  plants 
a  quantity  of  nitrogen  which  is  the  most  valuable 
manure,  and  by  far  the  most  expensive  in  agricultural 

use. 

Other  deep-rooting  green  manures  fetch  up  the 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  from  the  subsoil.  These 
accumulate  in  every  part  of  the  plant,  and  when 
ploughed  in  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  next  crop  and 
much  nearer  the  surface,  and  so  placed  that  the  roots 
can  draw  on  them  abundantly. 

90 


Green  Manure 

Among  the  leguminous  green  manures  are  in- 
cluded red,  white,  and  crimson  clover,  afalfa, 
samfoin,  vetches,  serradella,  and  lupins.  The  ex- 
posed portion  of  clover,  afalfa,  and  sainfoin  is 
too  valuable  to  be  used  for  manure  only,  and  is 
invariably  given  to  stock.  But  the  stubble  and 
roots  generally  contain  enough  humus  and  nitrogen 
for  a  wheat  crop  without  any  addition  of  farmyard 
manure. 

The  nitrogen  which  is  found  in  the  roots  and  the 
nodules  is  transformed  quickly  enough  under  the 
action  of  ferments  into  nitrate. 

The  vetches  are  often  used  as  grazing,  but  also 
are  frequently  ploughed  in  as  green  manure ;  serra- 
della is  treated  in  the  same  way.  They  are  both 
sown  in  the  wheat  and  are  extremely  useful  on 
most  soils. 

On  soils  poor,  but  not  calcareous,  yellow 
lupins  should  be  used  in  preference.  Lupins  are 
of  no  use  as  food,  but  as  green  manure  they 
are  extremely  valuable  and  would  enable  the 
greater  part  of  the  waste  land  to  be  cultivated. 
They  grow  so  freely  that  an  ordinarily  good  crop 
gives  to  the  soil  twenty  tons  of  manure.  From 
this  one  can  judge  their  usefulness  in  reclamation 
work  where  no  farmyard  manure  is  available. 
For  this  purpose  they  should  be  sown  with  slag 
and  potash. 

On  light  calcareous  soil,  however,  one  would  use 
white  or  crimson  clover  for  preference,  buckwheat, 
rye,  turnips,  etc.,  whilst  in  strong  soils  vetches, 
horse  beans,  red  clover,  and  rape. 

This    little    table    shows    the    percentages    of 

91 


Organic  Manures 

fertilising   matter  contained  in   loo  parts  in  the 
following  green  manures  : — 


Water. 

Nitrogen. 

Phos.  Ac. 

Potash, 

Vetches 

82 

0-59 

0-12 

o-6i 

Lupins 

80 

0-50 

O'll 

0-15 

Clover 

79 

0-58 

0-12 

0-43 

It  is  advisable  to  use  green  manures  on  a  large 
scale  particularly  where  farmyard  manure  is  scarce, 
and  also  where  the  regular  cultivation  of  catch- 
crops  is  not  possible.  It  should  be  sown  along  with 
the  wheat. 

If  possible  it  should  be  ploughed  in  when  the 
greater  number  of  the  plants  are  in  flower,  this 
being  the  time  when  they  contain  the  maximum 
amount  of  fertilising  matter  and  also  the  greatest 
bulk  of  humus,  and  when  the  latter  is  in  the  form 
most  easily  broken  up  and  assimilated.  The 
manures  should  be  buried  some  time  before  the 
sowing  season  and  should  be  in  process  of  decom- 
position before  the  autumn  wheats  are  sown,  because 
these  do  not  like  a  soil  that  is  not  well  settled. 
Green  manures  are  usually  followed  by  a  wheat 
crop.  Pastures  converted  into  arable  furnish  a 
cheap  green  manure  and  give  good  crops  providing 
that  they  are  given  assimilable  phosphates  and  a 
little  potash. 

Farmyard  Manure. 

For  hundreds  of  years  farmyard  manure  was  the 
only  fertiliser  employed  on  the  land.  It  was  upon 
this  manure  that  the  restitution  depended.  We  have 
seen  what  losses  of  fertilising  matter  it  undergoes, 

92 


Litter 

but  in  spite  of  that  it  is  still  the  manure  chiefly 
used. 

In  principle  it  ought  to  be  composed  of  animal 
droppings  both  solid  and  liquid  as  well  as  of  litter. 
But,  as  we  have  seen,  a  great  portion  of  the  ferti- 
lising matter  is  only  partly  preserved  or  altogether 
lost.  The  solid  droppings  contain  the  portions  of 
food  not  consumed  and  inassimilable,  or  unassimi- 
lated.  These  contain  nearly  the  whole  of  the  salts 
of  lime  and  magnesia,  the  phosphates,  and  the  nitro- 
genous organic  matter  which  is  difficult  to  digest. 

The  salts  of  lime  and  magnesia  and  the  unas- 
similable  phosphates  are  not  subjected  to  any  loss, 
but  the  nitrogenous  organic  matters  under  the  action 
of  moulds  and  ferments  may  lose  their  nitrogen  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent;  according  to  the  conditions  and 
to  the  organic  combinations  in  which  they  exist,  or 
the  stage  of  decomposition  which  the  manure  reaches. 

Liquid  excrements,  as  we  have  also  seen,  usually 
contain  very  little  lime  or  phosphoric  acid  ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  present  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
potash  contained  in  the  food  and  the  greater  portion 
of  the  nitrogenous  matter.  The  potash  being  in  a 
soluble  form  is  subject  to  loss  in  the  drains  ;  and  the 
nitrogenous  organic  matter  being  present  in  the 
form  of  urea  and  hippuric  acid  is  easily  transformed 
into  carbonate  of  ammonia,  decomposing  into 
ammonia  and  carbonic  anhydride,  which  escape  into 
the  air  and  represent  a  total  loss. 

Litter. 

Litter  only  gives  to  the  manure  the  fertilising 
matters  which  it  contains ;  thus  a  poor  litter  such 

93 


Organic  Manures 

as  pine  needles,  impoverishes  the  manure,  whilst 
a  rich  litter,  such  as  pea  or  bean  straw,  enriches  it, 
but  it  also  makes  the  value  of  the  manure  vary 
according  to  its  absorbent  properties.  Thus  peat- 
moss litter,  not  rich  in  itself,  can  absorb  from  five 
to  seven  cwt.  of  liquid  to  the  cwt.  (of  moss),  and  so 
forms  the  best  absorbent  in  use,  whilst  a  cwt.  of 
earth  will  only  absorb  half  a  cwt,  of  liquid.  These 
two  litters  have,  however,  one  great  advantage  over 
all  others,  that  of  retainmg  the  ammonia  ;  only  of 
course  a  great  quantity  of  earth  must  be  used  in 
proportion  to  the  peat-moss.  Wheat,  oat,  and 
barley  straw  absorb  nearly  2|  times  their  weight  in 
liquid,  but  oat  straw  will  be  chiefly  used  for  fodder, 
and  barley  straw  has  the  reputation  of  being  an 
irritant.  On  an  average  one  would  allow  9  lbs.  of 
litter  daily  per  head  of  large  stock,  that  represent- 
ing about  1 1  tons  per  annum. 

The  straws  of  leguminosse,  although  unfortunately 
not  at  all  plentiful,  make  a  litter  rich  in  nitrogen,  but 
as  they  are  very  rough  and  coarse  they  are  mixed 
with  other  litters. 

Variation  in  Value  and  its  Causes. 

Heather  is  a  poor  litter,  but  bracken  is  excellent. 

It  can  be  easily  understood  that  the  value  of 
manure  varies  largely  according  to  the  feeding  and 
treatment  of  the  stock.  Thus  breeding  stock  ap- 
propriate a  great  part  of  the  nitrogenous  matter, 
which  is  essential  for  the  formation  of  tissue,  and  the 
phosphoric  acid  and  the  lime  for  the  building  up  of 
the  frame,  and  give  to  the  litter  much  less  than  the 
grazing  stock,  which,  requiring  hydrates  of  carbon 

94 


Variation  in  Value  and  its  Causes 

more  than  anything  else,  and  receiving  substantial 
food,  emit  far  richer  excrements. 

Dairy  stock  will  not  give  such  a  rich  manure,  be- 
cause their  milk  contains  a  great  deal  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  lime,  while  draught  horses  and  oxen,  having 
no  need  of  further  development,  but  chiefly  assimi- 
lating the  carbonic  hydrates  and  disassimilating  the 
other  substances,  also  give  a  rich  manure. 

Farmyard  manure  differs,  further,  in  accordance 
with  the  kind  of  animal  that  produces  it,  and  in  this 
respect  it  is  distinguished  as  "  hot  "  and  "  cold  " 
manure.  That  of  sheep,  for  example,  is  very  hot,  that 
of  the  horse  hot.  These  contain  relatively  little 
water  and  much  nitrogenous  matter.  They  are  called 
"  hot"  manures  because  they  ferment  easily  and  emit 
much  vapour,  ripening  very  quickly,  so  that  their 
nitrogen  is  soon  in  an  assimilable  form  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  plants.  These  manures  act  rapidly, 
but  their  action  is  not  very  prolonged.  They  are 
specially  suitable  for  cold  soils  in  which  they  hasten 
the  commencement  of  vegetation.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  to\vns  they  are  chiefly  used  by  market 
gardeners  to  make  hotbeds  in  which  the  temperature 
has  to  rise  very  rapidly  and  very  high,  but  in  which 
the  action  cannot  be  very  prolonged  because  after 
a  short  time  the  temperature  falls. 

Cattle  manure  is  cold,  that  of  pigs  very  cold, 
both  containing  a  great  deal  of  water.  These 
manures  ferment  and  also  ripen  very  slowly.  They 
are  best  for  light  lands  and  those  lacking  in  humus, 
and  if  their  action  is  very  slow  it  is  also  very  pro- 
longed. They  are  of  no  use  for  hotbeds  because 
they  do  not  develop  a  high  temperature,  but,  on  the 

95 


Organic  Manures 

other  hand,  their  temperature,  such  as  it  is,  is  main- 
tained for  a  very  long  time.  They  can  be  used  for 
warm  beds,  though  not  hot. 

Keeping  and  Management  of  the  Dung  Heap. 

Again,  the  value  of  manure  depends  very  largely, 
one  might  almost  say  chiefly,  on  its  conservation 
and  maturing.  On  some  farms,  not  to  be  imitated, 
the  manure  is  carried  into  the  yard,  and  left 
exposed  to  the  wind,  sun,  and  rain.  The  manure 
dries  on  the  outside,  overheats,  and  is  soaked, 
and  this  happens  over  and  over  again  according 
to  the  atmospheric  variations.  It  matures  irregu- 
larly. The  rain  draws  up  all  the  fertilising 
elements  and  carries  them  away.  The  outside,  dry 
and  wet  alternately,  but  never  in  a  condition 
favourable  to  ripening,  does  not  undergo  much 
alteration,  but  loses  all  the  matter  it  has  absorbed. 
Meantime  the  interior  of  the  heap  ferments,  and  over- 
heats, white  moulds  develop  and  free  the  ammonia  in 
great  quantities,  whilst  the  fermentation  transforms 
the  ureas  into  carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  decom- 
poses rapidly,  and  by  decomposition  liberates  the 
ammonia,  till  in  the  end  there  is  nothing  left  but  the 
insoluble  matters.  Futhermore,  from  the  heap  of 
manure  a  trench  or  gutter  will  draw  off  all  the  good- 
ness it  has  contained  into  a  ditch,  and  so  it  will  be 
irretrievably  lost  to  the  farm. 

This  way  of  making  manure,  which,  imfortu- 
nately,  is  not  rare,  constitutes  an  unpardonable 
waste  and  a  grave  mistake  on  the  part  of  the 
farmer.     It  ought  never  to  be  allowed. 

The  first  step  towards  improving  this  defective 

96 


Management  of  the  Dung  Heap 

system  lies  in  the  formation  of  a  regular  heap  well 
compressed.  The  second  lies  in  covering  the  heap 
with  earth,  as  it  is  formed.  Then  comes  a  platform 
for  the  manure  with  a  pit  for  the  liquid  manure. 
Or  the  manure  may  be  covered  in.  This  is  a  notable 
improvement ;  but  the  best  way  of  all  of  making  and 
keeping  is  in  a  close-covered  place  close  to  the  pit  of 
liquid  manure.  Here  no  desiccation  by  the  wind 
even  laterally  can  take  place  ;  no  violent  continual 
evaporation  caused  by  the  displacement  of  the  air, 
no  loss  of  fertilising  matter  in  the  sewer.  On  the 
contrary,  there  will  be  a  regular  formation  of  manure 
well  compressed  throughout  the  mass,  without  white 
anaerobic  moulds,  but  formed  of  brown  humus  in  the 
presence  of  moisture  and  conserving  the  whole  of  the 
liquid  manure.  Such  an  arrangement  ought  to  be 
found  on  every  farm,  and  the  first  step  every  farmer 
ought  to  take  is  the  construction  of  a  water-tight 
manure  pit,  under  a  roof.  This  is  the  sort  of  thing 
that  pays,  paying  immediately,  and  will  have  con- 
tinuous beneficial  effect  on  the  farm. 

On  ordinary  farms  the  general  way  is  to  mix  the 
various  manures  to  get  an  average  dressing  which 
can  be  used  all  round.  No  special  manure  is  put 
aside  except  for  some  definite  purpose. 

The  value  of  manure  therefore  will  vary  con- 
siderably according  to  the  various  factors  which  may 
influence  it.  The  greatest  difference  in  its  value 
arises  from  the  way  in  which  it  is  prepared.  Thus 
a  manure  carefully  made  in  a  shed,  well  compressed 
and  watered  regularly  with  liquid  manure,  will  be 
worth  say  los.  per  ton.  If  so,  the  same  manure 
made  outside  but  roofed  over  will  be  worth  from 

97  H 


Organic  Manures 

7s.  to  8s.,  while  when  it  has  been  left  in  the  open, 
exposed  to  air  and  rain,  it  will  not  be  worth  more 
than  from  is.  to  4s.  The  difference  is  enormous 
and  helps  to  account  for  many  a  shortage. 

Carting,  Spreading,  and  Top  Dressing. 

In  any  case  the  manure  should  stay  in  the  shed 
or  under  cover  as  long  as  possible.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, on  large  farms  it  would  be  difficult  to  cart  all 
the  manure  required  just  at  sowing  time.  A  good 
plan  in  this  case  is  to  cart  the  manure  beforehand  to 
a  comer  of  the  field  and  make  a  well-compressed 
heap  about  4  to  5  feet  high,  covered  with  four  inches 
of  earth. 

The  spreading  of  manure  as  a  top-dressing  is 
sometimes  recommended.  That  can  be  best  done  in 
winter.  Still  it  is  not  so  advisable  as  ploughing  in 
because  of  the  possible  loss  of  soluble  matter  which 
can  be  carried  off  by  rain,  or  drawn  up  by  the  sun. 
In  any  case  this  method  is  better  than  dividing  the 
manure  into  little  heaps  which  lie  on  the  land  till 
time  of  sowing.  The  fields  in  which  this  has  been 
done  are  recognisable  by  patches  of  abnormal  vege- 
tation in  the  places  where  the  earth  has  soaked  up 
the  fertilising  matter.  Ploughing  m  may  be  recom- 
mended. 

Means  of  Preventing  Loss. 

In  all  manure,  no  matter  how  it  is  made,  a  certain 
part,  large  or  small,  of  the  nitrogen  is  lost  between 
the  moment  of  dropping  and  maturity.  Sometimes 
this  loss  is  enormous,  including  more  than  half,  three- 
quarters  even,  of  the  total  nitrogen  in  the  manure. 

98 


Means  of  Preventing  Loss 

This  can  largely  be  prevented.  It  indicates  a  waste 
of  liquid  manure,  and  a  bad  maturing  process.  But 
there  are  other  losses  of  which  the  farmer  does  not 
suspect  the  existence,  but  which  nevertheless  are 
very  important.  These  losses  begin  immediately 
after  the  emission  of  the  droppings,  and  include  in 
ordinary  cases  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
nitrogen.  These  figures  represent  in  England  the 
value  of  many  million  pounds  annually.  Ureas  are 
transformed  into  carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  de- 
composes into  ammonia  and  carbonic  anhydrides. 
This  ammonia — therefore  the  nitrogen — is  lost  in  the 
air.  To  retard  or  prevent  this  loss,  sulphate  of  iron 
has  been  tried,  but  it  was  not  satisfactory  ;  then 
gypsum  was  tried,  but  that  was  not  economical  ; 
but  research  has  sho\\Ti  that  the  sooner  the 
droppings  are  absorbed  the  less  waste  is  caused. 
Moss  litter  can  retain  much  more  ammonia  than 
ordinary  straw,  and  dry  earth,  though  it  absorbs 
much  less  liquid,  has  the  power  of  retaining  a  great 
quantity  of  ammonia,  thus  reducing  the  loss  by  half. 

It  has  been  actually  proved  therefore,  contrary  to 
the  theory  which  was  held  for  a  long  time,  that  the 
custom  practised  in  the  north  of  Belgium  of  using 
earth  as  part  litter  is  an  excellent  one,  and  that  if  it 
were  followed  in  England  it  would  represent  a  very 
considerable  source  of  profit  to  agriculture.  The 
losses  in  ammonia  continue  during  the  whole  course 
of  maturing  under  the  defective  conditions  we  have 
described,  whilst  they  are  reduced  to  a  minimum 
under  the  good  systems. 

It  is  not  necessary,  to  ensure  its  goodness,  that 
the  manure  shall  have  turned  black  or  that  it  should 

99 


Organic  Manures 

have  been  three  months  in  the  manure  pit.  It  is 
sufficient  and  preferable  that  it  should  only  have 
been  macerated  and  have  become  dark,  but  not 
completely  black,  and  that  it  has  been  from  eight  to 
ten  weeks  in  the  pit.  In  this  way  the  greater  part 
of  the  hydrocarbonated  matter  will  be  left  in  it,  and 
the  humus  will  not  be  destroyed  by  prolonged  fer- 
mentation. 

On  a  well-managed  farm  the  loss  of  nitrogen  will 
thus  be  reduced  to  a  quarter,  or  less,  while  the  lime, 
potash,  and  phosphate  will  be  recovered  whole.  So 
obviously  there  is  no  excuse  for  any  one  who  suffers 
a  greater  loss  than  this.  Here  is  the  content  of 
fertilising  matters  in  the  chief  types  of  farmyard 
manure  : — 


Dry 

Nitro- 

Phos, 

Water. 

Matter. 

gen. 

Potash. 

Acid. 

Horse  manure  (Muntz  &  Girard) 

64-9 

35-1 

0-48 

0-84 

0-32 

Cattle 

69*0 

31-0 

0-57 

0-88 

0-26 

Sheep 

66-8 

33-2 

0-64 

150 

0-40 

Pig             ..        (Wolf) 

72-4 

27-6 

0-45 

o-6o 

0-19 

Rothamstcad  mixture  (Voelcker) 

76-0 

24-0 

064 

0-32 

0-23 

Mixed  Manures. 

Mixed  manure  can  be  employed  on  any  crops,  and 
an  application  of  6  to  7  tons  to  the  acre  is  recom- 
mended, or  from  10  to  12  loads.  Root  crops 
require  more.  A  very  general  practice,  particularly 
on  strong  land,  is  to  give  large  dressings  at  more  or 
less  regular  intervals,  especially  on  root  crops,  when 
they  are  needed.  It  would  be  more  practical,  how- 
ever, to  give  the  farmyard  manure  every  year  in 
smaller  quantities  in  association  with  chemical 
manures.  These  heavy  dressings  are  neither 
useful  nor  necessary  except  on  land  that  has  been 

100 


Mixed  iVSanures 

exhausted  by  excessive  cropping,  or  altogether 
neglected,  when  they  will  restore  the  fertility  of  the 
soU.  In  these  particular  cases  an  ordinary  dose  of 
manure  will  give  practically  no  results,  since  the  clay 
and  the  humus  will  absorb  and  keep  for  themselves 
all  the  fertilising  matter  contained  in  it,  leaving 
nothing  for  the  crops. 

In  light  soils  repeated  applications  are  not  only 
advisable  but  necessary.  The  least  practical  use  to 
which  farmyard  manure  can  be  put  is  to  spread  it  on 
meadow  land,  though  that  is  still  a  common  practice. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  nearly  the  only  good  it  does 
lies  in  the  protection  it  gives  to  the  soil.  It  should 
be  given  to  pasture  only  when  the  soil  is  shallow  or 
the  manure  superabundant.  Manure  as  a  top  dress- 
ing is  only  advisable  in  gardening  where  it  isolates 
the  soil,  thereby  retarding  evaporation  and  main- 
taining the  friability  of  the  top  soil. 

In  many  districts  top  dressings  are  happily  dis- 
appearing, farmyard  manure  being  advantageously 
superseded  by  chemicals.  The  former,  well  made, 
brings  fertilising  elements  to  the  soil  in  what  is  con- 
sidered assimilable  form,  but  the  whole  of  the  nitro- 
gen and  the  phosphoric  acid  are  not  absorbed  even 
in  the  second  year.  The  action  of  farmyard  manure 
is  not  confined  only  to  that  of  its  fertilising  elements, 
but  the  humus  it  contains  increases  the  retentive 
power  of  the  soil,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  chapter  on 
that  subject,  with  regard  to  ammonia,  potash,  and 
phosphoric  acid.  It  mellows  the  land,  or  renders 
it  more  compact,  as  the  case  may  be,  regulates  the 
aeration,  helps  the  permeability,  and  makes  it  more 
workable. 

101 


Organic  Manures 

For  strong  lands  preference  should  be  given  to 
slightly  matured  manure,  but  for  light  lands  it 
should  be  well  ripened. 

In  fixing  the  price  of  manure  and  regarding  its 
value  as  an  improvement,  the  value  of  its  fertilising 
matters  is  estimated  as  follows.  The  price  of  the 
nitrogen  is  rather  less  than  that  of  the  nitrogen  in 
nitrate  ;  that  of  the  potash  is  equal  to  the  potash  in 
chlorure  of  potash  ;  and  that  of  the  phosphoric  acid 
is  equal  to  that  of  slags. 

The  quantity  of  farmyard  manure  varies 
according  to  the  feeding  conditions,  the  kinds  of 
animals,  the  litter,  and  the  housing.  In  prolonged 
(permanent)  housing,  however,  the  production  can  be 
calculated  as  9  cubic  tons  for  a  horse,  13 1  for  a  cow, 
J  for  a  sheep,  and  i^  for  a  pig  ;  taking  the  average 
weight  of  a  cubic  ton  as  about  10  cwt.  or  a  little 
more. 

Urine. 

Urine  is  liquid  animal  excrement,  and  is  pro- 
duced in  great  quantities  on  a  farm.  Both  its 
quality  and  quantity  vary  according  to  a  number 
of  circumstances.  It  always  contains  in  solution 
disassimilable  nitrogenous  products  and  soluble 
mineral  salts  derived  from  digested  food  and  waste 
of  tissue.  In  it  is  found  the  greater  part  of  the 
potash  and  nitrogen  contained  in  the  food.  In 
the  case  of  herbivorous  animals  the  urine  is  alkaline 
and  does  not  therefore  contain  phosphates,  whilst 
in  that  of  swine  they  are  found  in  a  considerable 
quantity.  The  quality  of  urine  differs  strongly 
according  to  the  breed  of  animal.    Thus  that  of 

102 


Urine 

pigs,  which  contains  nearly  97  per  cent,  of  water,  is 
scarcely  worth  the  cost  of  transport,  while  that  of 
horses,  containing  not  more  than  90  per  cent,  of 
water,  is  much  richer.     Here  are  some  averages  : — 

Animal.  Water.  Nitrogen.  Pbos.  Acid.  Potash. 

Sheep  ..  ..  ..  88-5  1-30  o'Oi  i"8o 

Horses  ..  ..  ..  90-0  1-50  a  trace  i"oo 

Cattle  ..  ..  ..  9i'0  i"oo  ,,  1*35 

Pigs  ..  ..  ..  97'o  0-50  0-15  0-70 

The  quantity  is,  of  course,  largely  dependent  on 
the  nature  of  the  food  ;  thus,  cows  fed  on  mangolds 
give  twice  as  much  as  those  fed  on  hay.  Horses 
fed  on  young  clover  give  much  more  than  those 
kept  on  a  dry  regime.  The  urine  of  pigs  and  cattle 
is  comparatively  abundant,  whUst  that  of  horses 
is  much  less  so,  and  that  of  sheep  quite  insignificant. 

In  young  animals,  also  in  milch  cows  which  use 
a  part  of  their  food  for  the  replacing  of  living 
tissue  or  for  the  production  of  milk,  it  is  not  rich, 
whilst  that  of  grazing  beasts,  only  making  fat,  which 
does  not  contain  fertilising  elements,  is  very 
rich. 

Draught  horses  and  oxen  also  produce  a  rich 
urine,  because  they  do  not  transform  anything  into 
increase  of  organic  matter,  and  their  work  only 
calls  for  hydrocarbons.  A  food  that  is  richer  in 
nitrogen  and  more  digestible  will  give  a  better  urine, 
because  the  albuminoids  appear  in  it  almost  com- 
plete. To  get  a  liquid  manure  that  will  be  useful 
for  every  purpose  it  is  necessary  to  blend  the  various 
urines. 

Nitrogen  is  found  in  urine  chiefly  in  the  form  of 

103 


Organic  Manures 

urea  and  hippuric  acid.  When  applied  to  the 
soil  these  compound  nitrogens  are  rapidly  trans- 
formed into  matter  assimilable  by  the  plants,  so 
that  the  effect  of  an  application  of  urine  will  only  be 
felt  during  one  season. 

The  best  way  of  using  it  is  to  absorb  it  in  farm- 
yard manure,  which  will  be  considerably  enriched 
thereby  and  form  a  complete  manure.  But  the 
urine  is  often  too  abundant  to  be  completely  absorbed. 
It  is  therefore  carefully  collected  in  impermeable 
tanks,  and  watered  on  to  the  manure,  which  it  helps 
to  mature.  Unfortunately,  on  many  farms  it  is 
altogether  neglected  ;  and  allowed  to  flow  away  into 
the  drains,  causing  serious  loss  which  must  be 
replaced  by  bought  manures  if  the  farm  is  not  to 
become  impoverished.  This  is  an  unpardonable 
waste. 

The  urine  used  in  watering  the  manure  heap 
is  itself  further  enriched  by  the  soluble  potash  of 
the  manure,  the  few  phosphates  and  the  portion  of 
nitrogen  rendered  soluble  in  the  course  of  the  trans- 
formations which  the  manure  has  undergone  during 
the  ripening  process.  Being  alkaline,  it  (the  urine) 
dissolves  part  of  the  humic  matter  which  gives  it 
its  dark  colour.  In  itself,  solid  farmyard  manure 
is  far  from  being  complete,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
use  with  it  a  corresponding  proportion  of  urines, 
which  are  then  called  liquid  manure. 

On  all  good  farms,  that  is  to  say  practical  farms, 
the  liquid  ought  to  be  collected  directly  after 
emission  or  after  it  has  passed  through  the  manure. 
It  ought  to  be  stored  close  to  the  manure  heap  so 
as  to  be  easily  handled  in  watering  in  order  to  prevent 

104 


Urine 

white  mould  making  its  appearance.  It  thus  will 
help  in  the  formation  of  manure  and  will  play  an 
important  part  on  the  farm.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  rainwater  or  the  drainage  from  the  soil  in 
winter  never  get  mixed  with  the  urine,  because  if 
this  happens  very  often  it  will  not  be  worth  the  cost 
of  transport.  It  is  evident  that  farms  where  the 
waste  of  manure  is  accepted  to  the  extent  of  not 
troubling  about  the  liquid  manure,  cannot  be 
called  well-managed. 

Liquid  manure  is  often  employed  on  pastures, 
or  as  a  dressing  for  wheat  in  spring  time.  Used 
simultaneously  with  phosphates,  it  is  good  for 
turnips  as  catch-crops.  As  a  dressing  it  should  be 
applied  in  rainy  weather,  but  never  in  dry  sunny 
weather,  because  then  it  is  caustic.  It  is  much 
better  to  choose  the  right  time  for  applying  it  than 
to  dilute  it  with  water,  for  this  simply  increases  the 
cost  of  transport  while  adding  nothing  to  its  use- 
fulness. 

It  should  not  be  used  just  before  or  during  the 
winter,  because  at  this  season  a  portion  of  its 
fertilising  matter  will  inevitably  be  lost.  It  can  be 
applied  before  sowing,  with  nearly  all  kinds  of  crops, 
and  it  is  largely  used  in  market-gardening.  It  is 
also  applied  to  orchards  in  June.  At  this  season 
it  is  particularly  useful  in  assisting  the  formation 
of  flower-buds  which  will  appear  soon  after,  and  the 
practice  will  have  an  influence  on  the  regular 
production  of  fruit. 

Liquid  manure  is  richer  than  urine  because  it 
also  contains  the  soluble  properties  contained  in 
the  evacuations  and  in  the  litter. 

105 


Organic  Manures 

It  forms  a  valuable  liquid  manure  which  can  be 
spread  on  practically  any  fields  in  the  spring  and 
on  land  intended  for  catch-crops. 

Guano. 

Formerly  what  was  understood  by  Huano-dung 
in  Spanish  was  the  deposits  of  excrement  of  sea-birds 
which  lived  on  fish,  the  refuse  of  their  meals,  and 
occasionally  the  bodies  of  their  own  species,  accumu- 
lated for  ages  on  the  sea-coast  or  in  the  islands  of 
Peru,  in  a  hot  climate  and  in  rainless  regions. 

These  deposits  were  found  chiefly  in  the  Chln- 
chas,  a  group  of  uninhabited  islands  in  the  Pacific, 
not  far  from  the  west  coast  of  South  America.  The 
Incas  always  employed  guano  in  their  agriculture. 
Van  Humbolt  was  the  first  to  bring  it  into  Europe 
in  1804,  but  it  was  not  till  1840  that  the  first  cargo 
was  unloaded  in  England.  This  was  the  first  real 
commercial  manure. 

The  results  from  this  manure  were  so  unexpected 
and  so  marvellous  that  five  years  later  300,000  tons 
were  imported.  The  demand  grew  with  its  popu- 
larity, and  so  great  were  the  exportations  that  at 
the  beginning  of  the  seventies  the  rich  natural 
deposits  which  attained  in  places  a  height  of  from 
20  to  25  yards,  and  were  estimated  at  10  million  tons, 
were  unhappily  exhausted.  It  was  an  ideal  manure 
of  sustained  and  rapid  action.  It  contained  from 
14  to  16  per  cent,  nitrogen,  so  that  it  was  as  rich 
in  nitrogen  as  nitrate ;  from  12  to  14  per  cent. 
Ph.  Ac,  equal  to  27  to  30  per  cent,  tribasic  phosphate, 
making  it  as  rich  as  many  superphosphates  ;  and 
from  2  to  3  per  cent,  potash. 

106 


Guano 

Part  of  the  nitrogen  was  soluble  in  water  and 
directly  assimilable  by  plants,  the  rest  was  in  a  form 
easily  converted  into  assimilable  combinations. 
There  was  a  little  in  the  actual  form  of  nitrate, 
and  the  rest  was  urate  and  phosphate  of  ammonia, 
etc. 

A  quarter  of  the  phosphoric  acid  was  soluble 
in  water,  the  remaining  three-quarters  being  in  a 
tricalcic  form,  but  certainly  in  a  state  of  assimilability 
comparable  to,  if  not  better  than,  that  of  bones. 

The  guano  of  the  Chincha  Islands  was  exhausted, 
but  the  reputation  of  its  value  was  firmly  established. 
Hence  guanos  of  poorer  quality  were  imported, 
coming  from  many  parts  of  Peru,  Bolivia,  Colombia, 
Patagonia,  the  coast  of  Australia,  South-West 
Africa,  and  the  Pacific  Islands.  These  were  not  so 
old  as  the  first,  therefore  not  so  concentrated,  and 
under  a  less  assimilable  form,  coming  some  from 
regions  of  little  rain,  others  from  more  rainy 
regions  ;  mixed  with  feathers,  refuse  of  fish,  and 
bones  of  birds — when  they  were  called  feather 
guano — but  diminishing  progressively,  sometimes 
rapidly,  in  value.  However,  people  still  paid  a 
high  price  for  them,  especially  when  one  considers 
that  in  the  meanwhile  had  appeared  on  the  market 
(in  small  quantities,  it  is  true)  the  Augamos  guano 
which  contained  close  on  19  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

It  is  comprehensible  that  in  hot  regions  with 
frequent  rain  nitrogenous  organic  matter  tended  to 
disappear,  also  the  soluble  phosphates  and  a  good 
part  of  the  potash,  consequently  concentrating  the 
tricalcic  phosphates.  This  was  called  then  phospho- 
guano. 

107 


Organic  Manures 

Sometimes  these  phospho-guanos,  from  which 
the  organic  matter  had  disappeared,  became  hard 
and  formed  a  species  of  rock  ;  they  were  then  called 
crust-guanos  or  guanorites. 

There  are  actually  on  the  market  preparations 
called  guanos  which  are  made  of  blood,  flesh,  the 
bones  of  animals  or  of  fishes,  and  fish  refuse.  Apart 
from  this  there  are  certain  flesh  guanos  made  from 
the  refuse  of  extracts  of  meat  works  ;  these  are 
"  made  in  England,"  and  are  called  blood  or  fish 
guanos.  Unfortunately,  they  are  generally  too 
dear. 

Farmers  appear  to  have  the  impression  that  the 
strong  odour  of  ammonia  given  off  by  some  guanos, 
the  moist  guanos  from  Bolivia  for  example,  is  a 
proof  of  their  superior  value.  On  the  contrary,  it 
is  a  sign  that  they  are  in  the  process  of  losing  their 
ammoniacal  riches.  Good  guano  ought  to  have  the 
brown  colour  of  burnt  chicory  ;  it  ought  to  be  easily 
pulverised  and  to  contain  no  particles  of  sand  or 
of  gravel,  but  to  be  smooth  to  the  touch  and  with- 
out a  strong  odour. 

The  composition  and  value  of  actual  guanos  vary 
considerably,  and,  owing  to  their  well-established 
reputation,  they  are  often  sold  at  a  price  in  excess 
of  their  value.  In  order  to  maintain  this  reputation, 
attempts  have  been  made  by  means  of  these  poor 
guanos  to  make  a  manure  as  concentrated  as  the 
Chincha  guano,  by  mixing  it  with  nitrate,  sulphate 
of  ammonia,  organic  nitrogen,  phosphates  imder  the 
form  of  superphosphates,  also  insoluble  phosphates, 
etc.,  and  of  potash — these  are  called  fortified  guanos. 
Their  value  depends  largely  upon  the  form  of  manure 

1 08 


Guano 

to  which  they  are  added.  They  have  in  every  case 
the  fault  of  artificial  manures,  that  they  cost  too 
much.  Their  use  is  not  advised,  because  the  farmer 
can  always  find  the  fertilising  matters  they  contain 
at  a  more  advantageous  price. 

But  a  real  and  notable  improvement  in  this 
poorer  guano  was  to  treat  it  with  sulphuric  acid, 
[H2SOJ,  so  as  to  fix  the  nitrogen,  which  is  lost  in  the 
decomposition  of  the  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  the 
form  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  to  transform 
the  insoluble  tribasic  phosphates  into  soluble  and 
directly  assimilable  superphosphate.  This  is  done 
on  a  large  scale,  and  the  results  are  called 
dissolved  guano. 

Compared  to  the  original  guano,  this  guano  is  of 
equal  content,  but  of  much  superior  value.  Its 
action  is  more  rapid  and  more  energetic,  but  it  will 
not  be  felt  for  more  than  a  year.  The  imits  of 
fertilising  matter  can  be  bought  at  the  price  of  the 
type  units,  but  should  not  be  dearer. 

Good  modem  nitrogenous  guano  is  the  fresh  dung 
of  birds.  Its  value  varies  considerably,  according 
to  its  content  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid.  The 
proportion  of  potash  does  not  change  much.  It 
contains  from  2-5  to  11-5  per  cent,  nitrogen,  with  an 
average  of  more  than  4  per  cent.,  corresponding  to 
3  to  14  per  cent,  of  ammonia,  15  to  40  per  cent,  phos- 
phate, in  the  tricalcic  form  [(CaO)3P205],  2  to  4  per 
cent,  potash.  It  is  nearly  always  bought  too  dearly, 
for  its  value  is  not  equal  to  that  of  dissolved  guano. 

Phospho-guano  only  contains  i  to  3  per  cent, 
nitrogen,  but  may  occasionally  contain  65-70  per 
cent,  tribasic  phosphate.     Neither  in  nitrogen  nor  in 

109 


Organic  Manures 

phosphoric  acid  has  it  the  value  or  the  assimilability 
of  good  guanos.     It  is  a  slow  and  expensive  manure. 

Fish  Guano. 

The  manufacture  of  fish  guano  is  one  of  the  best 
industries  from  the  agricultural  poirft  of  view,  and 
as  long  as  it  can  be  carried  on  economically,  it 
ought  to  be  encouraged.  It  is,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  returning  to  the  land  that  which  the  sea  has 
taken  from  it.  Every  river,  every  stream,  every 
rainstorm  carries  down  to  the  sea  soluble  fertilising 
elements,  washed  out  of  the  earth.  It  is  at  the 
expense  of  the  fertilisers  which  are  taken  from  the 
soil  that  the  fish  of  the  sea  are  multiplied,  and 
the  sea  never  returns  what  it  has  taken. 

The  question  ought  to  be  considered,  therefore, 
of  the  formation  of  a  fishing-fleet  working  for  the 
guano  manufacture,  so  that  it  should  be  no  longer 
a  minor  industry.  This  would  allow  of  much 
cheaper  production.  For  the  objection  to  fish 
manure  is  that  the  demand  is  much  greater  than 
the  supply.  Hence,  in  accordance  with  the  natural 
law,  prices  are  so  high  that  it  is  not  possible  to 
recommend  its  purchase,  since  the  manure  would  not 
repay  the  outlay. 

There  are  other  manures  in  which  the  fertilising 
units  are  equally  good,  and  much  cheaper.  Before 
it  can  be  a  profitable  investment  for  the  farmer,  the 
output  must  be  increased  or  the  price  lowered. 

The  fish  guano  industry  received  a  great  impetus 
in  1870,  when  the  rich  beds  of  guano  of  Peru  were 
exhausted. 

It  is  found  on  the  market  under  various  names  : — 

no 


Fish  Guano 

I.  Fish   guano.      2.    Fish   manure.       3.    Fish 
powder. 

It  constitutes  what   is  known   as   a  complete 

manure,  containing  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and 

potash,  though  the  latter  is  only  in  small  quantities. 

The  guano  is  obtained  by  drying  the  fish  and 

after\vards  reducing  it  to  powder. 

Fish  manure  varies  in  quality  and  composition, 
according  to  the  material  from  which  it  is  obtained, 
the  method  of  preparation,  and  the  impurities  found 
in  it.  If  made  from  salt  fish,  it  contains  a  great 
deal  of  salt,  which,  not  being  manure  and  taking  the 
place  of  that  which  is,  lessens  its  value.  If  the  fish 
waste  includes  the  livers,  which  are  oily,  the  value 
of  the  manure  is  again  diminished,  because  the  con- 
servmg  qualities  of  the  oil  hinder  the  decomposition 
of  the  organic  matter  and  retards  its  assimilation. 

Herring  Guano,  still  called  Guano  Powder,  is 
oily  throughout,  and  of  inferior  quality  to  that 
obtained  from  non-oily  fish,  known  as  White  Fish 
Guano.  However,  the  oil,  having  no  value  from 
the  agricultural  point  of  view,  makes  the  manure 
poorer  than  its  drawbacks  warrant,  for  it  must  be 
present  in  considerable  quantities  to  retard  the 
decomposition  of  organic  matter  for  any  appreciable 
time;  3  or  4  per  cent,  is  not  harmful  from  this 
point  of  view. 

Guano  made  of  waste,  especially  if  it  is  made  of 
bones,  can  contain  great  quantities  of  phosphates  j 
sometimes,  if  it  is  made  exclusively  of  bones,  repre- 
senting as  much  as  50  per  cent,  phosphate,  and 
about  4  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

When  the  waste  consists  more  especially  of  the 

III 


Organic  Manures 

flesh  of  the  fish  the  proportion  of  phosphates 
diminishes,  and  that  of  nitrogen  increases.  The 
flesh  of  fish,  like  that  of  other  animals,  contains 
about  15I  per  cent,  nitrogen,  and  only  a  little 
phosphoric  acid,  while  the  bones  contain  many 
phosphates  and  a  good  quantity  of  nitrogenous 
organic  matter.  Guano  made  by  drying  over  an 
open  fire  loses  a  part  of  its  nitrogen  during  the 
process. 

Generally  in  well-managed  works  the  prepara- 
tion is  made  in  closed  pans,  and  there  is  no  loss. 
In  such  places  the  oil  is  extracted  more  or  less  per- 
fectly to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap. 

Some  makers  dry  the  fish  insufficiently,  and 
then  the  guano  can  contain  as  much  as  35  per 
cent,  water.  This  water  not  only  uselessly  takes 
the  place  of  the  manure,  which  is  consequently  im- 
poverished, but  when  the  guano  is  stored  causes  loss 
of  nitrogen  in  ammoniacal  form  by  fermentation  and 

fungi. 

Fish  guano  rarely  contains  any  great  quantity 
of  silicate  matter,  when  present  in  any  quantity  it 
denotes  impurity. 

It  is  obvious,  then,  that  fish  guano  varies  con- 
siderably in  quality.  Its  purchase  needs  close 
attention,  and  it  must  never  be  bought  without 
analysis,  because  its  value  can  vary  from  single  to 
double  or  even  more,  and  will  do  so  especially 
according  to  the  proportion  of  nitrogen  which  is 
found  in  it.  The  price  of  the  units  must  be  com- 
pared with  those  of  other  commercial  products,  and 
purchase  only  be  made  when  the  prices  are  found 
to  be  favourable. 

112 


Fish  Guano 

Here  are  the  approximate  contents  of  good 
average  fish  guano. 

Average  Fish  Guano, 

Moisture           ..         ..         ..  17  per  cent. 

Organic  matter           . .         . .  60  ,, 

Phosphoric  acid           ..          ..  7  ,, 

Lime                  ..          ..          ..  7  ,, 

Magnesia          . .         . .         . .  4  ,, 

Various             ..          ..          ..  5  ,, 

Contains  Nitrogen  N  . .          . .  7  ,, 

Corresponding     to     Ammonia 

InHs  . .          . .          . .          . .  8^  ,, 

Corresponding      to      tribasic 

phosphates  of  lime . .         ..  15  J  „ 

The  finer  the  guano,  the  more  it  will  be  worth, 
but  in  any  case  the  value  of  the  unit  of  nitrogen  is 
notably  less  in  this  guano  than  in  the  nitrate 
of  soda  (NaNOs),  or  in  sulphate  of  ammonia 
[NH3(H2S04)].  The  unit  of  phosphoric  acid  is  of 
equal  value  to  that  of  bone  phosphate,  but  never 
has  the  value  of  the  phosphoric  acid  in  the  super- 
phosphates, which  are  monocalcic  or  dicalcic  phos- 
phoric acid.  The  potash  is  equal  in  value  to 
commercial  potash. 

The  guano  of  oily  fish  will  be  bought  by  the  unit 
at  a  slightly  lower  rate  than  that  without  oil.  If 
the  prices  are  equal,  preference  should  be  given  to 
the  latter.  Fish  guano  is  never  a  manure  of  rapid 
action,  because  the  nitrogen  only  exists  in  a  form 
of  organic  combinations,  which  are  slow  to  decompose 
and  become  assimilable.  The  same  remark  applies 
to  its  phosphates,  which  are  in  a  tribasic  form.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  not  lost  in  the  soil,  and  can  be 
applied  a  long  time  in  advance,  when  its  action  will 

113  I 


Organic  Manures 

be  progressive  and  sustained.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
slow  manure,  which  will  make  its  action  felt  for 
many  years,  and  from  this  it  has  partly  got  its 
reputation.  It  is  precisely  this  feature,  however, 
that  should  make  it  less  valuable,  because  each  unit 
of  fertilising  matter  can  only  be  absorbed  once  by 
the  plants,  and  since  all  the  units  of  the  manure  are 
paid  for  in  advance,  one  has  to  invest  one's  money 
in  the  soil  a  long  time  before  any  returns  are  obtained 
in  crops. 

The  proportions  of  the  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 
acid  are  very  variable  and  are  rarely  well  balanced. 
Potash  must  always  be  added,  and  likewise  nitrogen 
and  phosphoric  acid.  The  manure  should  be  applied 
to  root  crops,  preferably  before  winter.  It  should 
not  be  used  for  pastures,  because  the  nitrogen  would 
be  wasted  by  the  washing  away  of  the  organic 
matter. 

The  colour  is  blackish-brown,  and  its  texture 
renders  it  eminently  suitable  for  all  mixtures. 
The  makers  of  compound  manures  employ  it 
on  a  large  scale.  The  mixture  is  very  easy  to 
make,  and  would  be  a  good  one  if  it  were  not 
too  dear. 

The  manure  called  Equalised  Fish  Guano  has 
received  an  addition  of  potash  and  soluble  phosphoric 
acid. 

Bat  Guano. 

This  guano,  which  forms  another  interesting 
source  of  manure,  comes  from  the  dung,  refuse,  and 
bodies  of  bats  accumulated  in  caves  since  time 
immemorial.     It    is    sometimes    found    in    great 

114 


Blood 

quantities.  Being  formed  under  shelter,  the  ferti- 
lising materials  have  not  been  washed  away  by  rain, 
but  in  some  places  infiltration  has  caused  a  partial 
loss,  and  then,  the  humidity  favouring  fermentation, 
part  of  the  nitrogen  has  been  given  off  in  the  form 
of  ammonia.  This  explains  the  difference  in  their 
quality,  and  is  a  reason  why  they  should  only  be 
bought  on  analysis.  In  any  case,  they  are  a  very 
active  manure,  better  generally  than  modem  guanos. 
Here  is  their  average  composition  :  5  per  cent, 
nitrogen  ;   9  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid. 

They  are  found  in  many  places — Cuba,  Venezuela, 
Algeria,  Spain,  Sardinia,  Madeira,  and  elsewhere. 

Blood. 

Animal  blood,  being  the  vehicle  of  all  the  materials 
assisting  in  the  constitution  of  the  body,  contains  all 
the  elements  of  which  the  body  is  composed — that 
is  80  per  cent,  water,  2-5  to  3  per  cent,  organic 
nitrogen,  0'55  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  as  tri- 
calcic,  and  0-5  per  cent,  potash  [K2O].  Consequently 
it  is  chiefly  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter.  It  can  be 
employed  in  a  fresh  state  as  long  as  it  is  not  spread 
in  large  quantities  on  growing  plants,  which  it  would 
burn. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  rarely  employed  in  a 
liquid  state,  because  it  cannot  always  be  used 
immediately,  and  if  kept,  the  nitrogenous  organic 
matter  becomes  tainted  and  emits  a  nauseating 
smell.  When  it  is  obtainable  in  small  quantities  it 
is  better  to  absorb  it  in  some  kind  of  neutral  material, 
or  preferably  to  add  it  to  leaf  compost,  when  it  will 
have  a  real  value. 

115 


Organic  Manures 

But  when  it  is  obtainable  in  large  quantities  it 
is  preferable  to  convert  it  into 

Dried  Blood. 

There  are  two  methods  of  making  dry  blood,  but 
the  richness  of  the  product  obtained  does  not  vary 
much.  First  the  blood  may  be  allowed  to  coagulate 
and  the  fibrine  which  can  be  put  to  another  use  is 
separated.  Then  the  clotted  blood  is  dried,  when  it 
contains  about  lo  per  cent,  nitrogen,  a  little  phos- 
phoric acid  [P2O5],  and  a  little  potash  [KgO].  After- 
wards it  is  pulverised  and  applied  directly  to  the 
ground,  or  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  com- 
posite manures. 

By  the  second  method  the  fibrine  is  removed 
before  the  formation  of  the  blood  clots  and  treated 
separately,  but  it  is  added  later  to  the  defibrinated 
blood  before  desiccation. 

The  dried  blood  is  in  the  form  of  black  or  brownish 
grains  of  bright  fracture.  It  can  also  be  pulverised, 
in  which  state  it  is  perhaps  a  little  easier  to  spread  ; 
this  form  is,  however,  less  advisable,  because  it 
easily  absorbs  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere. 
This  absorption  increasing  its  weight,  but  diminish- 
ing the  percentage  of  nitrogen,  does  not,  however, 
represent  a  real  loss,  because  being  bought  by  the 
sack  the  extra  weight  is  immaterial,  while  the  pro- 
duce is  bagged  sufficiently  soon  after  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  manure  to  avoid  waste  ;  but  it  has  been 
observed  that,  after  having  absorbed  moisture,  the 
dried  blood  throws  off  its  ammonia,  and  this  means 
considerable  loss.  Also  pulverised  dried  blood  may 
be  easily  adulterated,  nitrogenous  organic  matter, 

116 


Dried  Blood 

difficult  to  assimilate,  sometimes  being  added.    Its 
purity  should  be  guaranteed. 

Dried  blood  contains  normally  about  13 1  per  cent, 
water.  It  should  never  be  bought  except  under 
guarantee  of  analysis,  because  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  can  alter  so  considerably  between  the 
moment  of  manufacture  and  that  of  delivery. 

Dried  blood  contains  from  10  to  13  per  cent, 
nitrogen,  sometimes  17  per  cent. ;  phosphoric  acid 
as  tricalcic  i"io  to  3*25  per  cent. ;  potash  [K2O]  o*6 
to  07  per  cent.  It  is  an  organic  nitrogenous 
manure  of  rapid  action,  because  under  the  influ- 
ence of  bacterial  fermentations  the  organic  nitrogen 
is  converted  first  into  ammonia  and  then  into  nitric 
acid — hence  the  usefulness,  or  even  the  necessity 
of  lime  in  the  soil.  If  lime  is  not  present  naturally 
it  must  be  introduced,  so  that  the  operations  of 
transformation  can  be  facilitated  and  the  nitric 
acid  quickly  converted  into  nitrate  of  lime. 

Our  opinion  is  that  too  high  a  price  is  often  paid 
for  dried  blood,  and  that  the  different  blood  manures, 
though  they  may  be  good,  are  not  always  worth  what 
is  asked  for  them. 

The  value  of  the  unit  of  nitrogen  which  the 
material  contains  in  its  pure  state  is  a  little  inferior 
in  value  to  that  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  but  it  is  comparable  to  that  of  guano  of 
Peru. 

Dried  blood  is  freely  employed  for  such  crops  as 
com,  hops,  turnips,  mangolds,  or  even  for  pastures, 
and,  in  the  colonies,  for  sugar  cane  and  coffee. 


117 


Organic  Manures 

Pigeon  and  Poultry  Dung. 

This  manure  is  not  generally  plentiful.  There 
are  only  a  few  poultry  keepers  and  pigeon  fanciers 
who  could  supply  it,  and  that  produced  on  the  farm 
is  very  often  neglected.  It  is  a  strong  manure,  which 
ought  to  be  collected  carefully  and  can  be  applied 
with  great  advantage  to  the  garden.  Properly 
diluted  it  makes  a  liquid  manure  which  gives  excellent 
results  both  with  vegetables  and  flowers. 

Pigeon  dung  is  richer  in  nitrogen  than  poultry 
(with  which  are  naturally  included  turkeys,  geese, 
etc.),  and  contains  from  i  to  3  per  cent,  nitrogen 
and  from  2  to  3*25  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid  as 
tricalcic.  Where  it  can  be  obtained  in  any  quantity, 
it  should  be  given  in  preference  to  beetroot  and 
drumhead  cabbage,  but  not  to  leguminosae. 

Town  Refuse. 

This  is  collected  by  the  scavengers,  and  comprises 
the  sweepings  of  roads  and  market  places,  and  the 
contents  of  dustbins. 

In  it  are  found  the  droppings  of  horses,  straw, 
leavings  from  meals,  vegetable  refuse,  fish  unfit  for 
food,  cinders,  house  sweepings,  paper,  bricks,  old 
mortar,  broken  glass,  bottles,  tins,  sand,  etc. 

The  value  of  town  refuse  varies  considerably 
according  to  what  it  contains,  according  to  the 
quarter  from  which  it  comes  (the  rich  quarters 
giving  the  best  results),  and  also  according  to 
the  season,  winter  producing  chiefly  cinders,  and 
summer  vegetable  waste.  In  a  green  state  it  con- 
stitutes a  slow  manure  not  to  be  greatly  recom- 
mended, imless  its  price  is  low.     But  when  it  has 

118 


Sewage 

been  screened  in  a  heap,  so  that  it  has  begun 
to  decompose,  its  value  is  considerably  raised.  It 
must  be  cleansed  of  objects  likely  to  hurt  or  hinder 
the  crops.  That  is  why  it  is  necessary  to  go  over  the 
fields  where  town  refuse  is  spread  with  a  basket  and 
collect  these  foreign  substances.  As  it  very  often 
contains  various  seeds,  it  should  only  be  applied  to 
cleaned  crops  ;  also  it  could  be  used  in  market 
gardens  on  the  outskirts  of  towns  where  the  cost  of 
transport  is  not  high.  On  the  spot  where  it  is 
bought  on  waggon  or  boat,  the  price  should  not  be 
more  than  one  shilling  per  cubic  ton.  Very  often 
it  wdll  not  be  worth  even  as  much  as  this  if  it  has 
to  be  carried  any  distance. 

Sewage. 

This  is  the  matter  passed  off  to  the  sewers  of 
to\vns,  collected  in  reservoirs  and  treated  in  a  manner 
differing  according  to  the  system  adopted. 

It  includes  human  excrements,  domestic  sink 
water  containing  animal  and  vegetable  waste,  slops, 
blood  from  slaughter  houses,  stable  urine,  street 
flushings  which  contain  the  droppings  of  animals, 
the  rubbish  of  markets  and  workshops,  and  the  dust 
formed  by  the  wear  of  the  materials  of  which  the 
roads  are  made. 

All  this  is  turned  into  large  cement  tanks,  and 
allowed  to  subside,  and  the  liquid  on  rising  is  drawn 
off  into  another  tank,  and  these  decomtations  are 
continued  until  the  residue  deposited  has  become 
quite  insignificant.  The  deposits  are  treated  in 
turn.  They  contain  a  great  deal  of  water,  but  they 
are  raised  and  allowed  to  dry  and  then  converted 

119 


Orgfanic  Manures 

into  powder,  or  sometimes  after  the  addition  of  lime 
they  are  passed  on  into  filter  presses  in  which  the 
water  is  expressed  and  the  solid  matter  compressed 
into  cakes.  This  sewage  from  which  the  greater 
part  of  the  soluble  constituents  has  been  taken  still 
contains  fertilising  matter  to  be  employed  with 
success,  in  triennial  applications,  on  sandy  soils 
where  farmyard  manure  would  be  needed.  Under 
these  conditions  the  fatty  and  soapy  matters  which 
if  used  regularly  and  abundantly  would  be  an 
obstacle  to  the  aeration  and  the  permeability  of  the 
soil  will,  in  the  time,  be  destroyed.  The  price  of  one 
shilling  a  ton  at  which  it  is  sold  in  some  places 
makes  its  use  worth  while. 

Seaweed. 

The  use  of  seaweed  is  confined  to  the  sea  coast, 
more  especially  the  west,  but  as  the  English  coast 
line  is  of  great  extent,  it  is  nevertheless  of  some 
importance.  It  is  derived  from  two  classes  of 
marme  plants — the  genus  Fucus  represented  by  the 
species  which  grow  in  the  tract  lying  between  high 
and  low  water,  which  are  much  the  poorer  as  manure, 
and  the  genus  Laminaria  to  which  belong  the 
submarine  plants  which  are  brought  up  by  the  tide 
and  left  exposed  when  it  recedes. 

Seaweed,  although  really  a  complete  manure 
containing  side  by  side  with  humus  the  different 
fertilising  elements  necessary  for  crops,  does  not, 
however,  contain  them  in  suitable  proportions.  It 
is  poor  in  phosphoric  acid,  and  not  sufficiently  rich 
in  nitrogen,  but  it  is  rich  in  potash,  and  so  rich  in 
chloride  of  potash  (KCl)  and  soda  (NaCl,  common 

120 


Seaweed 

salt)  that  these  chlorides  may  be  a  positive  hindrance 
to  the  crops. 

Seaweed  ought  not  to  be  used  continually  on  the 
same  ground,  but  alternately  with  farmyard  manure, 
or  better  still  in  conjunction  with  equal  quantities 
of  farmyard  manure.  This  would  allow  the  rain 
water  to  carry  away  the  excess  of  chlorides  in 
question,  without  permitting  them  to  do  any  harm. 

Being  too  poor  in  phosphoric  acid  all  seaweed 
manure  ought  to  receive  reinforcement  of  this 
manure.  Then  it  could  be  used  advantageously 
for  clover  and  potato  crops,  but  for  the  latter  an 
addition  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  nitrate  of 
soda  (NaNag)  will  be  required,  while  on  mangolds 
an  addition  of  nitrate  of  soda,  given  in  preference 
in  two  lots,  is  necessary.  The  use  of  seaweed  brings 
up  the  clovers  on  pastures  as  do  all  potassic  manures. 

It  is  not  recommended  for  turnips  because  the 
phosphoric  acid  cannot  be  assimilated  quickly 
enough,  and  also  it  contains  too  little  of  it  for  crops 
of  this  kind.  It  is  less  rich  in  nitrogen  than  farm- 
yard manure,  and  what  it  possesses  is  not  comparable 
to  that  of  farmyard  manure,  because  it  is  present  in 
a  form  very  difficult  of  assimilation.  It  is  therefore 
a  slow  fertiliser.  After  a  little  time  in  the  soil  it 
loses  a  great  part  of  its  bulk.  The  large  quantity 
of  water  it  contains  makes  it  unsuitable  for  transport 
to  any  distance. 

Here  are  average  contents  of  its  principal  con- 
stituents derived  from  about  lo  analyses : 

Water  75  per  cent. 

(i)    Organic  matter         ..         ..20         „ 
Phosphoric  acid        . .         . .       0*25     „ 
121 


Organic  Manures 


Corresponding   to  tribasic 

phosphate  of  lime    . . 

0*50  per  cent, 

Potash 

..       105        „ 

(i)  Content  of  nitrogen  .. 

0-44        „ 

Corresponding  to  ammonia 

.•       053 

Leather  Waste. 

This  is  made  by  reducing  old  skins  and  the 
waste  made  by  saddlers,  shoemakers,  curriers,  and 
bookbinders  to  a  fine  powder.  The  waste  is  treated 
with  steam,  or  baked,  and  then  ground.  The  value 
of  this  leather  waste  lies  theoretically  in  its  organic 
nitrogen,  since  phosphoric  acid  [P2O5]  only  exists  in 
insignificant  quantities.  It  contains  about  5-5  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen,  but  even  although  reduced  to  a 
fine  powder  this  nitrogen  lies  in  the  soil  an  indefinite 
time,  and  is  practically  unassimilable.  It  is  an 
asset  which  cannot  be  utilised,  so  that  its  manurial 
value — as  experience  has  shown — is  insignificant. 

Unscrupulous  makers  of  chemical  manures  use 
it  to  adulterate  their  goods,  but  leather  waste  ought 
not  to  be  employed  as  manure,  and  manure  con- 
taining it  ought  not  to  be  bought.  Its  presence  m 
chemical  manure  may  be  detected  by  means  of  a 
microscope. 

Refuse  of  Skins. 

These  waste  products  of  the  skinner's  industry 
connected  with  hares,  rabbits,  etc.,  come  from 
Germany,  and  contain  many  feet  which,  not 
having  imdergone  any  preparation,  will  make  a 
manure  of  very  slow  action.  Since  they  contain 
small  bones  the  tricalcic  phosphate,  which  is  not 
very  considerable,  only  becomes  assimilable  after 

122 


Nitragin 

some  years.  The  uncleaned  waste  skin  also  takes 
a  long  time  to  decompose.  This  is  why  they  are 
good  for  sandy  soils  intended  for  practically  per- 
manent crops,  which  exclude  the  possibility  of 
administering  fresh  supplies  of  organic  matter  to 
retain  the  humus.  They  should  be  applied  in  the 
year  the  plantation  is  made,  and  previous  to  that 
in  quantities  of  about  8  cwt.  of  skin  waste  to  the 
acre  in  addition  to  farmyard  manure. 

In  subsequent  years  liquid  and  chemical  manures 
should  be  given.  The  skin  waste  will  operate  for 
three  or  four  years  in  preventing  the  destruction  of 
humus.  Where  it  is  available  it  may  be  used,  as 
from  practice  we  know  that  under  certain  conditions 
it  is  extremely  useful,  and  with  its  help  profitable 
nurseries  may  be  established  in  sandy  soil.  This 
shows  that  under  certain  circumstances  one  is  justi- 
fied in  employing  manures  of  which  the  organic 
matter  is  of  slow  decomposition. 

Wool  waste  could  be  employed  in  the  same 
manner.  Cotton  waste  does  not  contain  any 
nitrogen. 

Nitragin. 

In  the  nodules  of  their  roots  the  leguminosae 
have  colonies  of  nitrogenous  bacteria.  These  bac- 
teria, without  differing  essentially  in  themselves, 
are,  however,  so  much  more  active  according  as  they 
are  adapted  to  such  and  such  a  variety  of  legumi- 
nosse.  That  is  why  cuttings  of  nitrogenous  bacteria 
were  commercially  prepared  for  each  variety.  It 
was  sufficient  to  dilute  the  culture,  and  sprinkle  the 
soil  with  the  solution.    This  operation  was  called 

123 


Organic  Manures 

"  Inoculating  the  Soil."  Sometimes  also  the  seed 
was  soaked  in  the  solution,  in  which  case  the  soil 
was  not  sprinkled  with  it. 

Those  who  believed  in  inoculating,  however, 
often  contented  themselves  with  taking  one  or  two 
cartloads  of  earth  from  a  field  containing  a  certain 
crop — say  clover — and  spreading  it  on  a  field  which 
they  intended  to  crop  in  the  same  way,  and  good 
results  were  obtained. 


124 


CHAPTER   IX 

Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

After  the  manures  come  the  improvements. 
Obviously  here  we  shall  not  refer  to  such  improve- 
ments as  draining,  etc.,  but  only  of  those  which 
represent  direct  additions  to  the  soil.  We  will 
confine  ourselves,  therefore,  to  improvements,  first 
calcareous,  second  humiferous. 

A  soil  without  humus  is  infertile  ;  with  too  much 
it  is  acid.  A  soil  without  lime  in  it  cannot  develop 
nitrification  and  its  crops  will  be  poor  and  lacking 
in  quality.  When  there  is  an  excess  of  lime  it 
bums  the  humus,  wastes  the  nitrogenous  organic 
matter,  and  renders  the  soil  sterile.  It  is  in  this  that 
the  danger  of  using  too  much  lime  lies.  Humus 
and  lime  are  two  indispensable  improvements  which 
must  be  constantly  renewed  because  they  are 
constantly  destroying  each  other  in  making  them- 
selves useful.  They  constitute  the  reactives  of  the 
soil  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  great  laboratory. 
But  they  must  both  be  present  in  the  right  pro- 
portions. There  must  not  be  an  excess  of  the  one 
or  the  other,  because  then  they  would  be  injurious. 
There  must  be  plenty  of  both,  but  in  good  proportions, 
and  that  is  what  we  have  to  ensure.  It  is  to  these 
two  improvements  that  we  are  indebted  for  the 

125 


Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

possibility  of  reclaiming   much  land   that  without 
their  aid  would  be  uncultivable. 

The  rdles  played  by  the  two  improvements  are 
very  different  in  their  effects,  so  that  we  shall  have 
to  discuss  them  separately.  Let  us  first  examine 
the  calcareous  improvements. 

Calcareous  Improvements. 

There  are  many  calcareous  improvements.  Their 
action  varies,  evidently,  according  to  the  chemical 
form  of  their  constituents,  the  proportions  in  which 
these  are  encountered,  and  the  soil  on  which  they 
are  employed. 

Among  them  lime  is  the  most  important.  After 
it  comes  limestone,  chalk,  gypsum,  etc.,  coal 
ashes,  turf  ash,  etc.  We  will  treat  each  of  these 
substances  separately,  establishing  at  the  beginning, 
however,  a  well-defined  distinction  between  lime  and 
the  carbonates  of  calcium  or  limestone,  because  these 
frequently  give  rise  to  confusion. 

Although  derived  from  carbonate  of  calcium 
(CaCos),  caustic  lime  (CaO),  whether  quick  or  slaked, 
has  very  distinct  and  important  properties  which 
the  carbonate  does  not  possess,  and  which  make  its 
value,  whilst  the  lime  becoming  recarbonated  in  the 
soil  very  rapidly  acquires  the  properties  of  limestone. 
It  is  obvious  that  we  should  not  pay  the  cost  of 
burning  lime  where  limestone  will  suffice,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  should  not  apply  limestone  when 
lime  is  necessary. 

Thus  when  wishing  to  destroy  rushes  one  would 
use  lime. 

126 


Calcareous  Improvements 

In  soils  where  free  acids  are  encountered  in  con- 
siderable quantity — such  as  peaty  soils — lime  would 
be  used  to  absorb  them.  It  acts  very  rapidly  and 
thoroughly ;  for  while  limestone  can  neutralise 
acetic  and  humic  acids,  for  example,  only  lime  is  able 
to  neutralise  carbonic  and  tannic  acids.  Lime  alone 
is  capable  of  transforming  the  organic  matters  of  the 
vegetable  mould  and  of  producing  ammonia  (NH3) 
from  the  nitrogenous  organic  matter.  It  is  thanks 
to  these  two  capacities  that  we  are  able  to  conquer 
waste  places,  acid  soils  that  are  too  humiferous,  and 
especially  waste  soils  of  granitic  origin. 

Its  use  generally  produces  unforeseen  effects, 
because  the  lime  hastens  the  disintegration  of 
alkaline  silicates,  freeing  the  potash  and  placing  it 
at  the  disposal  of  the  plants.  We  have  said  that 
when  lime  has  done  its  work  it  does  not  remain  in 
the  soil  as  quicklime  (CaO),  but  is  transformed  in 
proportion  to  the  extent  of  its  action.  A  great  part 
thus  becomes  carbonate  of  lime.  This  is  very  im- 
portant, because  quicklime,  in  spite  of  the  services 
it  renders,  will  become  harmful  and  prevent  the  soil 
from  enjoying  the  advantages  which  it  had  procured. 
Thus  lime  impedes  nitrification,  or  stops  that  which 
is  taking  place,  whilst  limestone  not  only  helps  it 
but  is  indispensable.  To  these  qualities  are  due 
some  of  the  varying  results  obtained  by  their  use. 
It  is  calcium  carbonate  which  gives  to  the  nitric 
ferment  the  CO2  which  it  needs,  and  which  moreover 
neutralises  the  nitric  acid  as  it  is  formed.  Hence 
without  calcium  nitrification  ceases. 

In  the  chapter  on  phosphates  we  see,  d  propos 
of  the  reversion   of  phosphates,  that  the  soluble 

127 


Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

phosphates  are  rapidly  indissolubilised  in  the  soil  by 
becoming  insoluble  phosphates  of  Ca,  which  practi- 
cally prevents  their  loss  by  drainage.  But  on  the 
other  hand  limestone  promotes  the  solubilisation  of 
phosphates  of  iron  and  aluminium  already  existing  or 
formed  at  the  same  time  as  the  insoluble  phosphates 
of  Ca.  The  water  charged  with  CO2  penetrates  the 
soil  attacking  the  insoluble  limestone  and  rendering 
it  soluble  in  the  form  of  bi-carbonate  of  calcium. 
(This  soluble  calcium  forms  by  evaporation  the 
stalactites  and  stalagmites  of  caves.)  But  in 
solution  it  possesses  one  important  property.  It 
is  capable  of  coagulating  clay.  Clay  swells  in  water. 
The  soluble  carbonate  coagulates  it  and  these  clayey 
calcareous  coagulum  facilitate  the  circulation  of 
water  in  the  soil.  This  enables  the  soil  to  dry  more 
rapidly.  Freed  of  its  excess  of  water  the  earth  is 
much  easier  to  work  and  much  earlier  in  season. 
This  fact  is  greatly  appreciated  in  stiff  clayey 
country  where  the  spring  can  be  greatly  retarded 
because  the  moisture  makes  the  groimd  too  sticky. 
With  regard  to  humus  we  also  see  that  the 
limestone  coagulates  the  humic  acid  and  that  with 
this  the  lime  forms  humates.  We  know  too  that 
limestone  has  the  power  to  enable  humus  and  clay 
by  capillary  action,  to  fix  the  manures  and  to  trans- 
form them  into  carbonates,  thus  preventing  the 
prevalence  of  ammonia,  potash,  and  of  phosphates. 
The  lime,  while  waiting  to  be  transformed  into 
carbonate  which  encourages  nitrification  and  con- 
sequently the  production  of  nitrate,  has  the  advan- 
tage of  freeing  the  ammonia,  which  is  immediately 
accessible  for  the  plants. 

128 


Lime 

In  many  places  it  is  sufficient  only  to  apply  lime 
to  the  soil  to  get  a  crop  of  wheat  where  formerly 
such  a  thing  was  impossible. 

Lime  (CaO). 

Lime  comes  from  the  calcination  of  limestone, 
which  is  more  or  less  pure  calcaire  (CaCos).  By 
calcination  the  carbonic  anhydride  [CO2],  commonly 
called  carbonic  acid,  is  expelled,  and  what  remains 
(CaO)  is  quicklime.  So  many  lime  kilns  are  still 
used  in  England  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe 
their  working.  Limestone  is  found  in  many  parts  of 
England.  It  is  easily  recognised,  because  under  an 
acid  (vinegar)  it  effervesces.  This  test  is  particularly 
striking  if  chlorhydric  acid  is  used.  The  purest 
limestone  is  obviously  the  best,  because  it  will  give 
the  most  lime.  Lime  is  white  when  the  limestone 
is  pure.  In  this  case  it  swells  considerably  with 
water,  and  the  best  lime  gives  95-97  per  cent,  of 
lime.  Less  pure  limestone,  containing  clay,  is  not 
good.  The  lime  derived  from  it  has  the  property 
of  hardening  under  water,  and  gives  hydraulic  lime, 
which  is  not  suitable  for  agricultural  purposes.  It 
contains  70  per  cent,  of  lime.  Siliceous  lime  is 
poor,  only  swelling  slightly,  and  of  a  grey  colour. 
It  contains  more  than  70  per  cent,  of  lime.  Lime 
obtained  from  calcareous  dolomites  is  brown  or 
yellow.  It  is  very  efficacious,  but  perhaps  more  or 
less  injurious  according  to  the  quantity  of  magnesia 
it  contains.  Lime  having  a  greater  affinity  for  the 
carbonic  anhydride  and  other  acids,  the  magnesia 
may  retain  its  caustic  properties  for  a  long  time,  or 
else  its  caustic  action  on  plant  life  is  more  harmful. 

129  K 


Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

This  lime  contains  from  55  per  cent,  to  65  per  cent, 
of  lime,  and  about  25  per  cent,  of  magnesia.  Lime 
can  also  be  obtained  by  burning  the  shells  of 
molluscs,  etc.,  when  they  can  be  found  in  sufficient 
quantity. 

Basic  slag  forms  a  good  source  of  agricultural 
lime.  It  contains,  as  we  have  seen,  besides  phos- 
phoric acid,  about  50  per  cent,  of  lime,  of  which 
3  to  5  per  cent,  are  free.  In  many  soils  this  lime 
represents  a  part  of  the  value  of  the  slag.  A 
dressing  with  slag  will  give  the  soil  a  small  dose 
of  lime,  but  very  often  quite  sufficient. 

Good  quicklime  should  be  in  blocks  as  large  as 
possible.  It  should  be  white,  and  ought  to  be 
entirely  burnt,  allowing  very  little  waste  when 
finished.  It  should  be  made  from  the  purest  lime- 
stone obtainable.  When  plunged  in  water  for  a 
couple  of  minutes  and  withdrawn  it  ought  to  dis- 
integrate completely  and  rapidly,  throwing  off  a 
great  deal  of  vapour  and  swelling  considerably. 
In  large  lumps  it  cannot  be  slaked  during  transport, 
and  still  less  carbonated,  in  which  case  it  would 
have  lost  a  great  part  of  its  value. 

Lime  must  therefore  always  be  fresh.  The 
waggons  in  which  it  is  carted  ought  to  be  covered, 
so  as  to  shelter  it  from  CO2,  from  rain  and  atmos- 
pheric moisture.  Slaked  lime  is  easily  carbonated. 
Then  it  no  longer  has  a  caustic  action  on  organic 
matter,  and  can  no  longer  directly  neutralise  the 
acids  in  the  soil.  The  two  great  qualities  which 
make  the  value  of  the  lime  will  then  be  lost.  More- 
over, the  finer  the  lime  the  more  will  it  be  car- 
bonated, since  a  greater  surface  will  be  exposed 

130 


Lime 

to  the  influence  of  the  carbonic  anhydride.  In 
large  blocks  this  surface  obviously  will  be  reduced, 
being  practically  nil  in  good  lime.  The  finer  the 
lime  is  pulverised  the  greater  will  it  be,  and  in 
ground  quicklime,  which  has  been  stored  a  long 
time,  the  carbonisation  will  be  almost  complete. 

Lime  must  be  slaked  on  the  ground  where  it  is 
to  be  used.  To  ensure  this  it  should  be  put  in 
small  heaps  on  the  field,  about  seven  yards  apart 
each  way.  They  must  be  covered  with  earth  to 
exclude  the  air.  It  is  essential  that  this  is  done 
before  the  lime  should  be  slaked,  which  will  be 
accomplished  in  from  two  to  seven  days,  sometimes 
more,  by  the  water  in  the  soil.  The  lime  is  then 
reduced  to  a  fine  powder  and  uniformly  spread  with 
shovels.    After  spreading  it  is  ploughed  in  at  once. 

Lime  is  an  essential  plant  food,  and  soils  that 
are  naturally  poor  or  that  have  become  impoverished, 
will  never  give  good  crops  of  clover,  for  example, 
which  at  harvest  contain  about  45  lbs.  of  lime  to 
the  ton.  But  most  soils  contain  sufficient  to  satisfy 
the  requirements  of  the  plants.  On  the  other  hand, 
lime  taken  from  the  soil  is  practically  returned  in  the 
manure,  because  the  cattle  do  not  retain  the  greater 
part  of  it,  and  no  loss  takes  place  in  the  manure. 
We  can  then  very  often  dispense  with  lime  dressing 
or,  in  any  case,  only  apply  it  in  small  quantities. 
Thus  slag  manures  will  be  more  than  sufficient  to 
supply  all  that  is  required,  and  even  more  since 
I  cwt.  of  slag  often  contains  more  than  50  lbs.  of 
lime  (50  per  cent.,  or  thereabouts). 

But  lime  ought  not  to  be  regarded  so  much  as  a 
manure,  but  as  an  improvement,  and  it  is  in  this 

131 


Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

capacity  that  it  renders  enormous  services  to  agricul- 
ture, in  which  very  often  it  plays  a  part  as  impor- 
tant as,  even  more  important  than,  manure.  There 
are  soils,  of  course,  to  which  it  is  not  necessary  to 
give  lime  ;  there  are  others  in  which  its  use  would  be 
dangerous ;  but  not  to  employ  it  at  all  under  any 
form,  on  the  pretext  that  the  soil  generally  contains 
sufficient,  is  a  great  mistake.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
must  guard  against  its  abuse,  for  it  has  been  abused 
terribly  in  times  past,  so  much  so  as  to  give  rise  to 
two  dictums — inexact  it  is  true  :  "  Lime  enriches 
the  father  and  impoverishes  the  son  "  ;  and  again, 
"Lime  once  and  make  a  fortune.  Lime  twice  and 
lose  it."  Well !  in  either  case  the  blame  ought 
not  to  be  put  on  the  lime,  but  on  the  person  who 
has  abused  it.  It  would  be  better  to  say,  "  When 
lime  has  impoverished  the  soil  it  is  because  the 
farmer  does  not  know  how  to  use  it."  And  when 
one  hears  of  applications  of  four  and  five  tons  to  the 
acre,  sometimes  even  of  seven  to  ten,  one  is  not 
astonished  at  the  harmful  results. 

Heavy  dressings  on  land  under  ordinary  cultiva- 
tion ought  to  be  avoided.  The  very  conspicuous 
and  rapid  action  of  lime  has  given  it  a  vogue,  and 
has  led  to  the  practice  of  giving  it  in  large  quanti- 
ties. But  in  so  doing  the  farmer  is  really  killing 
the  goose  that  lays  the  golden  eggs — in  other  words, 
he  is  destroying  the  humus  in  the  soil.  Much, 
however,  as  we  condemn  this  abuse  of  lime,  we 
certainly  recommend  its  reasonable  use. 

But  to  be  able  to  apply  lime  with  a  knowledge 
of  the  subject  one  must  imderstand  the  part  it  plays 
and  the   services  which  it  renders,  and    on  that 

132 


Lime 

knowledge  one  must  base  its  use  and  avoid  its 
abuse. 

The  use  of  lime  must  always  be  combined  with 
that  of  potash  and  assimilable  phosphates,  because, 
a  great  quantity  of  nitrogen  being  liberated  in  the 
form  of  ammonia  by  this  means,  a  tendency  to 
vigorous  vegetation  will  be  promoted,  and  all  the 
necessary  elements  being  present  in  sufficient 
quantity  there  is  no  loss  of  nitrogen  as  long  as  the 
dressings  of  lime  are  not  exaggerated. 

On  the  other  hand,  tribasic  phosphates,  whether 
mineral  or  animal,  must  not  be  used  at  the  same 
time  as  lime,  because  the  lime,  neutralising  the 
acids  in  the  soil,  makes  them  powerless  to  act  on  the 
insoluble  phosphates,  since  it  is  the  acid  which,  by 
making  a  combinatign  with  one  or  two  bases, 
renders  the  phosphates  assimilable. 

In  acid  soils  nitrification  is  not  produced,  unless 
the  acidity  is  first  saturated  with  lime,  whilst  too 
much  lime  hinders  the  progress  of  nitrification. 
When  the  lime  is  in  excess  it  bums  the  organic 
matters  on  which  the  ferments  depend,  which 
promote  the  microbes  of  nitrification,  thus  destroy- 
ing the  conditions  which  are  necessary  to  their 
development.  Therefore,  in  destroying  the  humus 
by  an  excess  of  lime  one  is  destroying  that  which  is 
essential  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  It  follows,  of 
course,  that  the  more  humiferous  the  soil  the  more 
lime  can  be  applied,  and  the  more  acid  it  is,  the 
more  one  ought  to  apply  it.  Therefore  the  quantity 
of  lime  which  may  be  too  much  in  one  soil  may  be 
only  what  is  right  in  another,  and  may  not  be  suffi- 
cient in  a  third. 

133 


Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

The  application  of  lime  to  very  humiferous 
and  very  acid  soils — peat,  for  example — is  of  para- 
mount importance.  On  account  of  its  great  acidity 
this  kind  of  soil  solubilises  all  the  salts  of  potash 
and  phosphates,  and  in  the  absence  of  humates 
they  pass  into  the  subsoil  and  are  washed  away. 
This  fact  explains  the  poverty  of  peat  in  these 
elements. 

Soils  which  are  thus  naturally  impoverished  can 
only  be  made  fertile  by  the  introduction  of  lime. 
Until  lime  is  applied,  even  though  larger  quantities 
of  manure  are  applied,  the  results  will  only  be 
mediocre  and  the  manures  will  be  lost.  It  is  only 
after  applying  lime  that  manures  can  be  used  without 
risk  of  w^ste.  And  limestone  cannot  take  the  place 
of  lime  completely. 

In  very  strong  clayey  land  lime  tends  to  improve 
the  texture  of  the  soil.  It  makes  it  more  friable, 
less  compact,  more  permeable  to  water,  and  therefore 
earlier  and  more  penetrable  by  air,  and  also  renders 
it  easier  to  work.  On  such  soils  one  frequently 
finds  from  four  to  six  tons  of  lime  applied  per  acre, 
where  i|  to  2  tons  would  really  be  better,  because  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  humus  already  in  the 
soil  renders  just  the  same  services. 

Lime  makes  sandy  soil  more  compact,  and  so 
hinders  the  harmful  infiltration  of  air  and  helps 
retain  the  moisture.  It  must  be  used  cautiously, 
however,  because  the  introduction  of  humus  to 
this  kind  of  soil  is  often  a  long  business.  Half  a  ton 
of  lime  to  the  acre  will  be  sufficient. 

Too  much  lime  destroys  what  is  commonly  known 
as  "  the  old  force  "  of  the  soil,  and  so  it  is  a  manure — 

134 


Lime 

the  only  one — which  can  really  impoverish  the  soil. 
For  nitrate,  as  we  saw,  does  not  impoverish. 

The  most  favourable  time  to  apply  lime  is 
between  the  dressings  of  farmyard  manure.  By 
using  the  right  quantity  of  lime  the  formation  of 
ammonia  will  be  promoted,  and  also  that  of  nitrate 
from  the  massimilable  nitrogenous  organic  matters 
in  the  soil,  and  so  economical  crops  can  be 
obtained. 

In  order  that  carbonated  lime  or  plain  limestone 
can  be  effective  in  acid  ground  they  must  first  be 
treated  with  the  acids  of  the  soil.    The  finer  the 
limestone  the  more  easily  will  it  be  affected,  but  the 
effect  will  also  be  in  direct  relatign  to  the  strength 
of  the  acids.     In  any  case  the  action  of  limestone 
will  be  slow,  less  energetic,  and  less  complete  than 
that  of  quicklime,  and  some  acids — such  as  carbonic 
acid  and  tannic  acid — will  have  no  action  upon  it 
whatever.    Therefore,   carbonate   (of  lime)    is  not 
sufficient   to   neutralise   these   acid   soils,   whereas 
quicklime  acts  rapidly  and  efficiently  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  humates,  which  play  such  an  important 
part  in  retaining  the  ammonia  and  other  fertilising 
matters.     Besides  the  carbonate  formed  from  lime 
will  be  found  in  the  soil  in  a  much  finer  form  than 
can  be  obtained  by  ground  limestone,  etc.,  and  then 
will  have  more  effect  than  ordinary  limestone. 

Large  applications  of  lime  are  generally  to  be 
condemned.  First  on  account  of  the  outlay  they 
represent.  Afterwards,  the  lime,  acting  energetically 
on  the  organic  matters  and  mineral  constituents  of 
the  soil,  makes  them  very  assimilable  to  plants  which 
at  the  outset  will  produce  a  luxuriant  vegetation, 

135 


Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

the  effect  being  still  quite  marked  in  the  second  and 
even  the  third  year.  During  this  period  the  soil  is 
rendered  permeable,  very  workable,  liberally  acces- 
sible to  air  and  water,  and  consequently  subjected  to 
violent  reactions.  All  the  time  too  the  organic 
matters  of  the  soil  have  been  yielding  their  am- 
monia and  producing  nitrate  ;  the  humus  has  been 
oxidized  ;  the  phosphates  and  the  potassic  salts 
have  been  freed  by  the  humates  which  have  been 
destroyed  ;  and  all  this  nutriment,  which  the  plants 
were  incapable  of  absorbing  in  the  short  time  in 
which  it  was  produced,  has  sunk  into  the  soil  and 
been  carried  off  in  the  drains  by  the  rain  water. 
The  fertility  of  the  soil  has  been  destroyed,  the  "  old 
force  "  has  disappeared,  the  ground  has  been  ruined, 
and  the  productivity  of  subsequent  years  reduced 
to  such  a  low  ebb  that  it  can  only  represent  loss  to 
the  farmer. 

It  will  take  several  years,  and  the  application 
of  considerable  quantities  of  organic  matter,  mostly 
in  the  form  of  farmyard  manure,  to  restore  the  soil 
to  its  former  fertility. 

In  the  case  of  soils  ruined  by  liming,  and  con- 
verted a  long  time  since  into  poor  pasture,  a  reason- 
able dressing  of  lime  will  enable  them  to  produce 
fresh  crops. 

Lime  may  be  applied  at  intervals  for  years,  until 
poppies  are  seen  in  the  wheat  and  the  cornflowers  are 
disappearing.  Then  it  must  be  only  applied  in 
reduced  quantities. 

Ground  Lime  or  Agricultural  Lime. — ^This  product 
is  frequently  devoted  to  a  purpose  for  which  it  is 
not  suitable.    Often  it  is  nothing  but  waste  from 

136 


Lime 

limekilns,  either  ground  or  not  according  to  the  name 
it  bears.  Very  often  it  is  slaked  lime  [Ca(0H)2] 
carbonated  by  contact  with  the  air,  losing  in  con- 
sequence the  greater  part  of  its  value.  This  being 
the  case  it  is  absurd  that  it  should  sometimes  be 
sold  at  a  higher  price  than  lump  lime,  which  is  really 
valuable.  Lime  ought  to  be  in  as  large  lumps  as 
possible,  providing  that  it  can  be  well  burnt,  because 
in  this  state  it  is  less  exposed  to  the  air.  Even  if  it 
is  well  applied,  ground  lime  cannot  saturate  all  the 
acids  of  the  soil,  bum  organic  matters,  or  in  many 
cases  promote  nitrification.  In  fact,  it  might  give 
rise  to  a  new  proverb,  "Agricultural  lime  im- 
poverishes those  who  employ  it,  and  enriches  those 
who  produce  it." 

Agricultural  lime  sometimes  contains  large  quan- 
tities of  impurities  derived  from  the  limestone  itself 
and  from  the  coal  used  for  burning.  About  50  per 
cent,  of  these  impurities  have  been  found  in  some 
cases.  If  such  a  sample  were  slacked  and  afterwards 
carbonated  its  weight  would  be  much  increased  by 
carbonization  and  absorption  of  water,  and  its  value 
considerably  diminished.  Therefore  the  contents 
and  form  of  lime  should  be  guaranteed.  This  typical 
case  might  be  illustrated  by  the  following  figures. 

We  will  take  a  farmer,  living  a  long  way  from  the 
limekiln,  and,  say,  five  miles  from  the  station  : 

Quicklime  m  lump  costs  17s.  a  ton  at  the  kiln. 

Agricultural  or  groimd  lime  costs  17s.  6d.  a  ton 
at  the  kiln. 

To  get  equal  value  from  each  he  must  use  two  tons 
of  agricultural  lime  per  acre,  or  only  about  half  a 
ton  of  quicklime  per  acre. 

137 


Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

A.  Agricultural  Lime.  B.  Quicklime. 

Per  acre.  5^  5.  s.  d. 

2  tons  at  1 75.  6c?.  per  ton  at  kila  i  15  J  ton        ,.         ..8    6 

Transport  by  rail  at  3s.  per  ton  6  ^  ton        . .         ..16 

Cartage  at  IS.  6£?.  per  ton        ..  3  J  ton        ..         ..         9 

Handling  and  distributing   on  Unloading,  spread- 

the  fields  (it  is  unnecessary  to  ing  and  respread- 

cover  with  earth),  2  tons     ..  i  ing  lateral        ..  i     o 

Total        £25  II     9 

tst  Difierence  (certain),  £2  5s.  0^.-125.  6^.=;^i  3s.  36?.  per 
acre. 

2nd  Difierence  (probable),  better  effect  by  B  than  by  A. 

Agricultural  lime  will  be  found  in  the  soil  many 
years  after  it  has  been  applied,  often  without  any 
alteration.  The  name  ground  lime  is  generally 
applied  to  ground  limestone.  Pure  limestone  corre- 
sponds to  about  56  per  cent,  of  lime  [CaO]  and 
about  44  per  cent,  of  carbon  dioxide  [CO2].  There- 
fore the  value  of  ground  limestone  is  always  less 
than  that  of  its  corresponding  quantity  of  lime. 

Gas  Lime. — Gas  lime  is  the  waste  from  the  second 
purification  in  the  manufacture  of  lighting  gas, 
which  consists  of  passing  it  over  sieves  spread  with 
wet  lime,  so  as  to  take  out  the  sulphurous  com- 
pounds which  would  otherwise  destroy  the  pipes. 
This  lime  contains  a  series  of  calcinous  compounds, 
among  which  are  sulphites  and  cyanides,  which  are 
poison  both  to  plants  and  animals,  along  with  a  little 
ammoniacal  nitrogen  varying  between  0*25  and  0-5 
per  cent.  It  is  the  presence  of  these  poisons  which 
causes  gas  lime  to  be  sometimes  used  as  a  weed 
killer  on  garden  paths,  or  to  destroy  slugs,  there- 
fore it  should  never  be  used  fresh  in  agriculture. 
It  should  never  be  spread  on  fallows,  because  by  the 

138 


Lime 

consequent  exposure  it  will  carbonate  and  lose  part 
of  its  value,  neither  is  it  to  be  recommended  for  use 
on  mossy  pastures,  unless  the  harmful  products 
have  been  oxidized  beforehand.  It  should  be 
employed  ui  preference  in  composts,  or  with  the 
cleanings  of  ponds  and  ditches.  It  must  at  least  lie 
three  months  so  that  its  dangerous  combinations 
can  be  destroyed  by  oxidization.  Then  it  could  be 
employed  anywhere  where  one  would  use  lime,  but 
much  larger  quantities  are  required  than  of  quick- 
lime, and  because  of  the  extra  work  entailed,  one 
should  never  pay  more  than  a  fifth  as  much  for  it, 
while  generally  speaking  quicklime  will  be  more 
economical. 

Its  composition  varies  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  lime  employed,  the  length  of  time  allowed  for 
its  purification,  and  also  the  quality  of  the  coal 
which  furnished  the  gas.  Its  value  varies  according 
to  the  quantity  of  nitrogen,  of  carbonate  and 
sulphate  of  calcium,  and  also  according  to  the 
quantity  of  water  which  it  contains. 

This  latter  varies  from  21  "5  to  30  per  cent. 

Here  is  an  example  of  its  approximate  composi- 
tion : — 


Water 

Caustic  lime 

Carbonate  of  calcium 

Sulphites  and  sulphates 

Sulphur 

Various 


27  per  cent. 

17 

25 

25 

4 

2 


100 


Its  popularity  has  chiefly  arisen  from  its  smell, 
and  this — which  is  only  the  results  of  sulphurous 

139 


Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

combinations — is  much  more  prominent  than   its 
value,  which  is  in  reality  nothing  to  boast  about. 

Slag  from  Sugar  Manufacture. 

This  consists  of  the  residue  of  the  lime  employed 
in  sugar  factories  for  precipitating  the  organic 
matters  of  the  juice  which  impede  the  crystallisation 
of  the  sugar.  After  the  precipitation  of  these  organic 
matters  the  excess  of  lime  is  next  precipitated  by 
saturating  the  boiling  juice  with  carbonic  anhydride 
— the  result  being  carbonic  calcium.  These  slags, 
therefore,  are  composed  of  precipitates  of  organic 
matter  and  impalpable  carbonate  of  lime  [CaCOs]. 
The  value  of  slags  is  partly  attributable  to  the  fine- 
ness of  the  insoluble  calcium  present  in  an  impal- 
pable form,  and  partly  to  the  nitrate  and  phosphoric 
acid  it  contains.  Wolif  gives  the  following  analysis 
of  its  important  constituents  : — 

Water           ..         ..         ..  ..  ..  ..  43*3    percent. 

Insoluble  carbonate  of  lime  . .  . .  . .  o"35       ,, 

Organic  matters       ..          ..  ..  ..  ..  I'j'z         „ 

Phosphoric  acid       ..         ..  ..  ..  ..  o"i         ,, 

JNitr3>X6  ••  ••  •■  ••  «•  «a      O*  ^  1^ 

The  carbonate  of  calcium  in  the  form  of  impal- 
pable elements  is  the  most  active  of  all  the  carbonates 
of  calcium.  Its  action  will  be  rapid  and  not  long- 
lasting.  Its  use  is  recommended  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  sugar  works,  but  it  does  not  justify  the 
heavy  cost  of  transport. 

It  would  cost  probably  from  is.  6d.  to  2S.  a 
ton. 

140 


Gypsum 

Shells. 

Shells  of  dead  marine  animals,  brought  up  by  the 
rising  tide  and  left,  can  be  usefully  employed  if  they 
are  crushed  very  finely.  In  some  places  there  are 
depots  of  shells  which  can  be  converted  into  lime. 
They  contain  95  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  calcium. 

Gypsum. 

Sulphate  of  calcium  is  found  in  two  different 
forms. 

1st.  White,  crystallised,  without  water  in 
crystallisation.     This  is  "  anhydrite  "  [CaS04], 

2nd.  White  or  colourless,  crystallised  with  two 
molecules  of  water  under  crystallisation.  This  is 
gypsum,  CaS04+2H20.  In  the  mass  it  forms 
alabaster,  which  can  easily  be  distinguished  from 
calcide  because  it  can  be  scratched  with  a  nail. 
Gypsum  is  soluble  in  450  times  its  volume  of  water. 
It  is  the  presence  of  gypsum  which  makes  the  water 
of  Paris  cloudy,  when  it  comes  from  the  main,  and 
makes  it  unsuitable  for  consumption. 

Plaster  of  Paris  is  CaSO^,  obtained  by  burning 
gypsum,  which,  during  the  operation,  loses  its 
2  molecules  of  water.  When  using  equal  quantities 
of  sulphate  of  calcium  either  gypsum  or  plaster  can 
be  employed.  Burned  plaster  when  pure  contains 
90-92  per  cent.  CaSO^  and  8-10  per  cent,  water ; 
gypsum  plaster  when  pure  contains  79  per  cent, 
sulphate  of  Ca  and  21  per  cent,  water.  Generally 
it  contains  some  impurities,  when  of  course  these 
percentages  will  be  reduced. 

It  is  found  in  many  places  all  over  the  world, 
especially  in  the  United  States,  in  France  near  Paris, 

141 


Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

and  in  England  in  Derbyshire,  only  containing 
calcium  and  sulphur,  which  are  not  necessary  to  the 
soil  in  the  form  of  sulphate  of  calcium  [CaSOJ, 
because  they  are  given  in  sufficient  quantities  in 
lime  or  phosphates,  and  especially  in  the  sulphates 
of  the  potash  salts.  Different  explanations  of  its 
action  on  plant  life  have  been  given.  The  right  one 
has  not  yet  been  found,  though  its  discovery  seems 
to  be  imminent.  Formerly  the  results  were  attri- 
buted to  the  reactions  of  anhydrite  on  the  salts  of 
the  soil ;  then  to  the  promotion  of  nitrification  after 
the  double  decomposition  which  created  favourable 
conditions  for  this  process.  In  some  alkaline  soils 
(NagCOs)  in  America,  where  formerly  young  plants 
were  completely  destroyed,  the  neutralisation  of 
the  alkali  by  means  of  gypsum  has  rendered  the  land 
cultivatable,  although  only  2|  to  3  cwt.  per  acre 
were  employed. 

Recent  experience  tends  to  show  that  gypsum 
acts  beneficially  in  driving  the  alkali  from  the  soil 
into  the  subsoil,  and  these  alkalis,  combining  with 
the  humic  acids  of  the  subsoil,  render  the  humates 
assimilable. 

Deep-rooted  plants  profit  best  by  gypsum.  Its 
use  is  recommended  for  leguminosae  in  general, 
and  above  all  for  clovers,  lucerne,  and  sainfoin, 
on  which  in  some  cases  it  doubles  the  crops.  The 
instance  of  Franklin,  writing  in  big  characters  in  a 
field  of  lucerne,  "  This  has  been  gypsum,"  is  now  a 
classic.     It  is  frequently  used  on  carrots: 

The  increase  of  weight  obtained  by  the  use  of 
gypsum  is  very  noticeable,  but  it  is  partially  due, 
probably,  to  the  absorption  of  additional  water  caused 

142 


Chalk  (Marne) 

by  the  gypsum.  It  is  known  that  gypsum  clover 
is  difficult  to  dry.  Until  final  experiments  have 
decided  the  real  value  of  gypsum  in  agriculture,  it 
would  be  better  not  to  popularise  its  use.  Under 
no  circumstances  should  it  be  used  for  cereals,  or 
in  ground  that  lacks  humus.  Gypsum  can  be 
economically  supplied  by  means  of  superphosphates, 
in  which  about  50  per  cent,  is  present.  This 
explains  the  favourable  action  of  superphosphates 
on  some  deep-rooted  crops. 

Chalk  (Marne). 

Chalk  is  really  a  mixture  of  clay  and  calcaire ; 
dolomite  or  sand  often  being  found  in  it. 

Chalk  swells  and  disintegrates  under  the  action 
of  air  and  moisture.  It  is  easily  recognisable  be- 
cause when  worked  upon  by  strong  vinegar  it  be- 
comes effervescent. 

The  composition  of  chalk  is  very  variable.  It 
contains  more  or  less  limestone,  clay,  sand  or 
dolomite. 

One  meets  at  all  depths.  When  near  the  surface 
its  presence  is  revealed  by  characteristic  vegetation, 
such  as  coltsfoot,  thorns,  thistles,  plantains,  etc. 

It  is  divided  into  upper  and  lower  chalk  ;  these 
differ  in  nature  and  in  quantity,  and  consequently 
the  soils  deriving  from  them  differ  also.  It  is  chiefly 
in  the  upper  chalk  that  one  finds  flint  beds ;  this 
chalk  is  white  although  the  surrounding  soil  is  often 
black,  by  mixture  with  a  part  of  the  uppermost 
stratum  laid  bare  by  erosion,  or  because  of  the 
accumulation  of  organic  matter.  These  soils  are 
easily  cultivated,  being  rather  light ;  though  poor, 

143 


Improving:  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

they  are  capable  of  producing  good  crops  when  well 
treated,  and  respond  freely  to  the  manures.  Where 
chalk  is  clayey  the  quantity  of  clay  is  predominant, 
and  the  proportion  of  calcium  is  sometimes  reduced 
to  10  per  cent.  In  this  case  it  ought  not  to  be  used  ; 
but  with  nearly  35  per  cent,  of  limestone  it  is  excel- 
lent on  sandy  and  dry  lands.  It  decomposes  less 
quickly  and  less  completely  and  is  darker  in  colour. 

When  chalk  is  sandy,  the  quantity  of  sand  pre- 
dominates. It  would  sometimes  be  85  per  cent.  ; 
when  there  is  about  40  per  cent,  limestone,  it  is 
very  suitable  for  wet  clayey  land,  because  it  makes  it 
at  the  same  time  less  tenacious  and  more  friable. 
It  does  not  form  a  sticky  mud  with  water,  and  easily 
decomposes.  When  it  is  dolomitic  it  contains  a 
considerable  proportion  of  carbonate  of  magnesia, 
sometimes  30  per  cent,  or  more,  and  50  per  cent,  of 
carbonate  of  Ca.  This  form  is  very  frequent  in 
England ;  it  is  suitable  for  clayey  soils,  for  pastures 
in  wet  situations,  and,  generally  speaking,  for  all 
soils  requiring  limestone. 

One  should  avoid  making  lime  of  these  magnesian 
chalks,  because  the  magnesia  which  they  contain 
by  the  transformation  of  carbonate  of  magnesia  into 
oxide  of  magnesia ;  this  magnesia  is  caustic,  as  we 
have  seen,  to  growing  plants,  and  ought  always  to 
be  applied  a  long  time  in  advance  to  the  fallow. 

One  should  for  choice  employ  each  kind  of  chalk 
on  the  soil  which  it  suits,  it  then  has  a  double  value  ; 
that  of  the  limestone  carbonates  is  evidently  the 
most  important,  but  that  of  the  second  element, 
whichever  it  may  be,  is  not  negligible.    The  best 

144 


Chalk  (Marne) 

chalk  is  that  which  disintegrates  most  thoroughly 
and  is  reduced  to  the  finest  particles. 

To  use  it  one  lets  the  chalk  disintegrate  in  the 
heap  on  the  ground  to  be  treated.  When  it  is  ready, 
it  is  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  in 
little  heaps  about  8  yards  apart,  like  lime.  It  should 
be  spread  for  preference  in  autumn.  When  necessary, 
before  ploughing  in,  it  can  be  reduced  by  the  har- 
row.    One  should  sow  in  the  following  spring. 

It  is  really  a  mixture  of  clay  and  of  limestone, 
and  it  often  contains  dolomite  or  sand  which  is  given 
them. 

The  lower  chalk  does  not  contain  flint  beds,  and  is 
less  white  ;  the  soil  derived  from  it  is  more  tenacious, 
as  though  containing  more  clay.  A  dressing  of 
sand  is  sometimes  useful.  It  yields  excellent  crops 
when  it  receives  manure  at  the  same  time  as 
humus.  The  whitest  chalk  contains  the  most  lime, 
it  is  then  called  calcareous.  It  disintegrates  easily 
and  is  especially  suitable  for  clayey  and  damp  soils 
rich  in  humus.  It  contains  more  than  50  per  cent, 
carbonate  of  lime  and  forms  a  paste  with  water. 

One  can  apply  this  in  alternate  layers,  like  gas 
lime,  with  farm  manure  or  vegetable  debris,  such  as 
twitch,  potato-tops,  leaves  and  waste  of  crops 
generally.  After  some  time  the  heap  is  turned  and 
used  when  the  chalk  is  completely  disintegrated. 
The  chalking  ought  to  be  renewed  more  or  less 
frequently  according  to  the  quantity  of  chalk  em- 
ployed, and  to  the  quantity  of  carbonate  of  calcium 
it  contains.  The  average  applications  are  i  to  20 
cubic  yards  to  the  acre,  renewed  every  ten  years. 

145  L 


Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

Humus. 

Humus  is  animal  or  vegetable  residue  which  is 
found  in  the  soil  in  various  conditions,  either  not 
yet  decomposed,  in  process  of  decomposition,  or 
decomposed — soluble  or  insoluble. 

Theoretically  it  ought  to  be  considered  only  as 
humus.  It  ought  not  to  include  nitrogen,  but  as  a 
matter  of  fact  it  does.  It  is  this  material  which 
gives  the  soil  its  colour,  and  makes  it  earlier,  because 
bemg  black  it  easily  absorbs  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

It  has  the  property  of  retaining  water  in  the  soil ; 
so  that  certain  soils  too  rich  in  humus  retain  too 
much  water ;  but,  generally  speaking,  humus  is 
valuable,  largely  because  it  helps  to  retain  the 
fertilising  matters,  which  otherwise  would  be  too 
easily  lost  m  the  subsoil. 

Humus  possesses  two  opposite  characteristics, 
according  to  the  soil  in  which  it  is  found.  It  gives 
more  cohesion  to  sandy  soils,  rendering  it  more 
compact  and  less  permeable,  and  makes  clayey  soil 
more  friable,  porous,  and  permeable.  It  promotes  the 
development  of  the  bacteria  of  nitrification  and  of 
favourable  moulds.  The  bacteria  of  nitrification 
travel  little  through  the  soil,  and  in  sour  sandy  soil 
they  are  very  often  non-existent,  because  of  the 
absence  of  lime.  That  is  why  when  attempts  were 
formerly  made  to  cultivate  these  soils,  only  very 
poor  results  were  obtained  from  green  manures  in 
the  first  year.  To  introduce  them,  the  agriculturist 
had  to  turn  to  humiferous  soil  close  by,  where  he 
knew  the  bacteria  were  found,  and  spread  one  or 
two  cartloads  of  this  soil  on  the  surface  of  the 
new  plot. 

146 


Humus 

Humus  differs  according  to  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  produced. 

ist.  In  arable  soils,  properly  aerated  and 
sufficiently  moist,  and  containing  carbonate  of 
calcium.  It  is  produced  when  the  temperature  is 
favourable  by  bacteria  and  moulds.  This  formation 
of  humus  is  accompanied  by  a  considerable  reduction 
in  volume  of  the  matter  from  which  it  is  formed.  The 
losses  are  heaviest  in  oxygen,  less  in  carbon,  and 
lightest  in  nitrogen. 

This  is  the  finest  humus. 

2nd.  Another  variety  of  humus  is  formed  when 
the  surroundings  are  slightly  acid  and  well-aerated, 
but  the  bacteria  are  not  so  active  because  of  the  ab- 
sence of  carbonate  of  calcium,  and  soon  give  place 
to  moulds.  This  condition  will  be  found  in  heather 
lands  and  some  pastures. 

3rd.  A  variety  of  humus  is  formed  in  marshes 
by  anaerobic  bacteria.  This  formation  of  humus 
under  water  is  accompanied  by  the  formation  of 
marsh  gas.  During  periods  of  atmospheric  depres- 
sion this  gas  escapes  sometimes  in  large  quantities, 
lights  spontaneously  and  produces  the  will-o'-the- 
wisps  {ignis  fatuus).  This  formation  of  humus 
gives  peat. 

As  humus  possesses  all  the  animal  and  vegetable 
matter  of  the  soil,  it  gives  off  ammonia  in  decomposi- 
tion, which  later,  under  favourable  conditions,  is 
transformed  into  nitrate  and  other  bodies. 

This  formation  of  ammonia  will  be  the  more  rapid 
in  action  because  it  will  have  the  influence  of  more 
carbonate  of  calcium  and  at  a  suitable  temperature. 
It  is  an  important  point  in  agriculture,  for  upon  it  is 

147 


Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Soil 

based  the  use  of  lime  as  an  improvement.  One 
should  not  use  too  much  of  it,  or  the  usefulness  of 
the  nitrogen  will  be  lost. 

Humus  rapidly  absorbs  (and  retains)  the  potash, 
lime  and  ammonia  of  manures ;  it  forms  also 
humates  which  are  not  soluble  in  water,  and  prevent 
them  being  carried  away  in  the  drains  by  the  rain 
water.  Therefore  chemical  manures  should  be 
employed  carefully  on  land  which  is  lacking  in 
humus. 

But  when  the  manures  contain  muriate  of  potash 
and  common  salt,  as  is  the  case  with  seaweed  and 
kainite,  they  present  a  loss  in  calcium  and  in 
magnesium. 

The  humus  in  decomposing  produces  carbon 
dioxide,  CO2,  which  helps  the  decomposition  of 
mineral  matters,  such  as  the  phosphates  and  potassic 
compounds,  and  makes  them  more  assimilable  to 
the  plants.  Humus  disappears  rapidly  in  arable 
soil  in  hot  weather,  and  it  is  very  necessary  to 
import  it  to  the  places  where  it  does  not  exist 
naturally  in  sufficient  quantities. 

Here  is  about  the  quantity  of  humus  present  in 
arable  soils  : — 

1.  Sandy  soil,  2  per  cent. 

2.  Loamy  soil,  3  to  4  per.  cent. 

3.  Clayey  soil,  4  to  6  per  cent. 

With  pasture,  clover  or  seeds  on  the  same  soils 
there  would  be  a  higher  proportion  of  humus. 


148 


CHAPTER  X 
Auximones 

A  NEW  chapter,  it  appears,  must  be  added  to  the 
book  of  manures.  We  have,  perhaps,  reached  a 
turning-point  in  the  history  of  agriculture.  A 
revolution  has  been  prepared  in  the  secrecy  of  the 
laboratory,  and  the  revolutionary  is  Prof.  W.  B. 
Bottomley,  of  King's  College,  London. 

In  the  Canary  Islands  one  sometimes  sees  the 
roofs  of  the  houses  converted  into  stables.  In 
London  one  can  see  them  devoted  to  the  cultivation 
of  vegetables  and  potatoes.  In  fact,  in  the  course 
of  experiments  on  the  elements  accessory  to  plant 
nutrition,  Mr.  Bottomley  has,  after  long  and  patient 
research,  managed  to  isolate  a  product  possessing 
the  most  extraordinarily  stimulating  properties  on 
vegetation.  This  product  he  has  named  Auximone, 
from  the  Greek  word  av^i/xo9,  meaning  "promoting 
growth."  It  is  an  accessory  food  for  normal  plant 
growth.  The  nature  of  auximones  has  not  been 
exactly  determined  yet.  They  are  not,  however, 
either  moulds,  fimgi,  or  bacteria.  Neither  are  they 
living  organisms,  seeing  that  in  a  retort  they  can 
resist  a  temperature  of  134°  C.  maintained  for  half 
an  hour. 

149 


Auximones 

They  are  contained  in  the  silver  fraction  of  phos- 
photungstic  acid  precipatated  from  an  aqueous 
extract  of  the  evaporated  residue  of  alcoholic  solution 
of  bacterized  peat.  They  are  probably  isolated  in 
the  form  of  crystals  or  batonnets.  Raw  peat  does 
not  contain  them.  It  must  be  inoculated,  and  it 
is  during  inoculation  that  they  are  produced  from 
the  humus.  They  are  therefore  the  result  of 
bacteriological  action. 

The  effect  of  the  auximones  is  absolutely  astonish- 
ing. Even  in  an  infinitesimal  proportion  they 
stimulate  growth  in  an  extraordinary  manner,  as 
was  seen  when  we  visited  Prof.  Bottomley's  labora- 
tory. 

He  had  taken  three  or  four  potatoes  and  put 
them,  without  any  earth,  in  an  ordinary  wooden 
box.  In  the  bottom  of  the  box  was  a  layer  of 
sphagnum  and  another  layer  was  placed  on  the 
top  to  exclude  the  air.  From  these  three  or  four 
tubers  in  a  few  weeks  he  had  obtained  a  heavy 
crop  of  potatoes.  Other  experiments  which  are 
being  carried  on  in  the  laboratory  with  wheat, 
maize,  etc.,  are  also  very  interesting.  All  that  was 
necessary  to  get  those  results  was  to  administer 
small  quantities  of  liquid  containing  auximones. 

Auximones  act,  that  is  evident.  But  how  ? 
The  problem  is  in  a  fair  way  to  be  solved.  Mean- 
while, in  the  opinion  of  those  who  have  seen  the 
results,  the  laboratory  trials  ought  to  be  exchanged 
for  practical  application,  and  if  the  results  then 
confirm  the  hopes  raised  by  those  now  known,  the 
effect  of  the  discovery  will  be  incalculable,  rendering 
inestimable    benefits   to    agriculture    and    causmg 

150 


Auximones 

profound  changes  in  its  methods.  It  would  at  the 
same  time  give  an  impetus  to  the  exploitation  of 
bacterized  peat,  which  could  be  sold  at  the  price 
of  nitrate,  turning  deposits  of  peat,  now  of  little 
value,  into  veritable  gold-mines. 

How  do  the  auximones  act  ?  Is  it  in  the  manner 
of  ferments  and  nitrifying  bacteria  such  as  those 
in  the  nodules  of  leguminous  plants,  enabling  the 
nitrogen  of  the  air  to  become  fixed  and  utilised  ? 
Have  they  a  favourable  action  on  the  production 
of  hydrates  of  carbon  ?  Have  they  any  influence 
on  the  assimilability  of  the  fertilising  matters  ? 
Under  what  system  of  manuring  are  they  most  easily 
assimilated  by  the  plants  ?  All  these  questions 
must  be  answered  before  we  can  benefit  by  all  the 
advantages  owing  to  the  discovery. 

One  fact  has  struck  us — that  auximones  are  not 
an  aerial  element,  the  stalks  and  leaves  of  the 
potatoes  being  relatively  small  in  comparison  to 
the  crop.  Since  "  nothing  is  created,  and  nothing 
is  destroyed,"  one  is  tempted  to  ask  whence  comes 
this  extraordinary  growth.  One  thing  certain  is 
that  the  auximones  only  form  an  accessory  element 
of  alimentation  for  the  plants  ;  or  only  help  the 
assimilation  of  other  aliments,  but  in  no  wise  supply 
these  aliments  themselves.  These  must  come  from 
the  outside. 

Is  the  assimilation  of  nutritive  matter  by  this 
method  of  culture  in  the  same  proportion  as  in 
ordinary  crops  ?  And  the  crops  themselves,  are 
they  as  proportionately  rich  in  nutritive  matter  as 
ordinary  crops  ?  If  so,  in  what  form  will  addi- 
tional manure  have  to  be  provided  ?     Is  the  increase 

151 


Auximones 

of  weight  and  size  attributable  to  a  single  element  ? 
It  is  proved  that  this  increase  is  not  simply  due  to 
the  quantity  of  water  absorbed.  But  does  it  depend 
in  any  way  on  the  carbonic  hydrates,  the  nitrogen, 
or  the  ashes  ?  Analysis  of  a  portion  of  the  crop 
would  furnish  most  interesting  evidence  in  this 
respect.  If  the  increase  is  influenced  by  the  carbonic 
hydrates  it  will  be  of  value  in  the  production  of 
sugar,  potato  fecula,  starch,  etc. 

If  it  concerns  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  the  growth 
is  equally  important  because  it  will  save  us  entirely 
or  partly  from  the  need  of  buymg  this  manure.  If 
at  the  same  time  it  concerns  ash  we  shall  have  to 
look  for  the  dominant  element  of  the  ash  to  be  able 
to  restore  it  to  the  soil,  and  eventually  so  that  we  can 
import  it.  The  questions  connected  with  the  form 
in  which  manures  ought  to  be  administered  to  crops, 
so  that  their  nutritive  value  can  be  augmented  in 
the  same  or  greater  proportion,  are  equally  important. 
A  great  part  of  the  problem,  therefore,  still  remains 
to  be  solved.  No  doubt  a  more  complete  knowledge 
of  the  auximone  will  enable  us  to  reach  the  solution 
more  quickly  by  indicating  the  lines  on  which 
research  with  regard  to  its  method  of  action  should 
be  carried  out.  The  question  of  auximones  is 
perhaps  the  most  important  that  has  ever  arisen. 


152 


QUANTITIES  OF  MANURES  WHICH  MAY  BE  USED 

TO   THE  ACRE. 


Nitra)e  of  Soda.  Potassic  Manurc§., 


SulpHaU 
Ommorvia. 


Quick' 
Vtme. 


Superphosphate.  Basic  Sla^. 

The  Black  Lines  indicate  Manures  that  may  be  Mixed. 
The  Dotted  Lines  indicate  Manures  that  may  not  be  Mixed. 

Note. — Superphosphates  containing  an  excessive  quantity  of  carbonate 
of  Ume  should  not  be  mixed  with  sulphate  of  ammonia. 

The  calculations  refer  to  typical  manures.  The  corre- 
sponding quantities  of  other  manures  belonging  to  the  same 
type  can  be  determined  by  consulting  the  foregoing  chapters. 
The  figures  must  be  varied  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil. 
For  example,  poorer  soils  will  generally  require  i  or  2  cwt.  more 
of  basic  slag  than  good  soil. 

Winter  Wheat. — In  good  soils — Farmyard  manure  7  to  8  tons, 
with  addition  of  3  to  4  cwt.  of  basic  slag  at  30  per  cent.,  and 
I  cwi;.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  at  seed  time  and  i  cwt.  of 
nitrate  of  soda  in  spring. 

If  coloured  bluish-green  after  winter,  none,  or  only  half, 
of  the  nitrate  needed. 

In  poorer  soils — 8  to  10  tons  of  farmyard  manure  with 
the  addition  of  5  to  6  cwt.  of  basic  slag ;  ^  to  |  cwt.  of  muriate 
of  potash  and  |  cwt.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  at  seed  time, 
and  I  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda  in  spring. 
Spring  Wheat. — One  cwt.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  half  of  the 
quantity  of  phosphoric  acid  should  be  applied  as  super- 
phosphate, at  seed  time  ;  later  i  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda.  In 
poorer  soils  i  cwt.  of  muriate  of  potash.  The  farmyard 
manure  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  possible  and  a  long 
time  before  sowing. 

153 


Quantities 

Oats. — In  good  soils — i  to  ij  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda — i  cwt.  of  super- 
phosphate and  ij  to  3  cwt.  of  basic  slag — i  cwt.  of  muriate 
of  potash  in  poorer  soils.  Farmyard  manure  to  be  applied  early. 

Winter  Barley. — In  good  soils — |  cwt.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia 
and  I  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda,  i  cwt.  of  superphosphate. 
I  cwt.  of  basic  slag.  In  calcareous  soils  |  cwt.  of  muriate  of 
potash. 

Spring  Barley. — In  good  soils — |  cwt.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia 
and  I  to  i^cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda — i  to  2  cwt.  of  super- 
phosphate and  I J  to  2  cwt.  of  basic  slag.  |  cwt.  of  muriate 
of  potash  in  poorer  soils. 

Rye. — Generally  grown  in  poorer  soils — 6  to  7  tons  farmyard 
manure  and  5  cwt.  of  basic  slag  ;  J  to  i  cwt.  of  muriate  of 
potash  and  after  winter  i  J  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

Buckwheat. — Farmyard  manure  early  applied,  with  a  supplement 
of  2^  cwt.  of  basic  slag  and  J  of  muriate  of  potash.  Where 
no  farmyard  manure  available,  supply  a  surplus  of  i  cwt. 
of  basic  slag,  i  cwt.  of  muriate  of  potash,  and  £  cwt.  of 
nitrate  of  soda. 

Potatoes. — 8  to  10  tons  of  farmyard  manure,  6  cwt.  of  super- 
phosphate, I J  cwt.  of  sulphate  of  potash,  i  cwt.  of  sulphate 
of  ammonia,  and  |  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

Mangolds. — 15  tons  of  farmyard  manure,  2  to  3  cwt.  of  nitrate 
of  soda,  2^  to  3  cwt.  of  basic  slag,  and  2  J  to  3  cwt.  of  super- 
phosphate, I  to  i^  cwt.  of  muriate  of  potash. 

Swedes. — 8  tons  of  farmyard  manure,  i  cwt.  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  3  cwt.  of  superphosphate,  2  cwt.  of  basic  slag, 
I  cwt.  of  muriate  of  potash. 

Turnips. — 7  to  8  tons  of  farmyard  manure,  J  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  ^  of  nitrate  of  soda,  4  to  5  cwt.  of  superphosphate, 
I  cwt.  of  muriate  of  potash. 

Carrots. — 7  to  8  tons  of  farmyard  manure,  3  to  4  cwt.  of  super- 
phosphate, I  cwt.  of  chlorure  of  potash,  i  cwt.  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  I  cwt.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia. 

Cabbages. — 15  to  20  tons  of  farmyard  manure,  4  cwt.  superphos- 
phate and  I J  cwt.  of  muriate  of  potash. 

Hay. — I J  to  I  J,;sometimes  even  2  cwt.,  nitrate  of  soda  with  addition 
in  exhausted  fields  of  5  to  7  cwt.  of  basic  slag,  or  on  dry  soila 
2 J  cwt.  superphosphate  and  2 J  cwt.  or  more  basic  slag, 
I  or  I  cwt,  of  muriate  of  potash. 

Clover. — At  the  same  time  as  protective  crops — 4  to  5  cwt.  of  basic 
slag,  or  as  top  dressing  2I  cwt.  basic  slag  and  2  cwt.  of  super- 
phosphate, and  I  cwt.  of  muriate  of  potash. 

154 


Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  1906 

6  EdW.  7,  Ch.  27.  A.D.  1906. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  SECTIONS. 

Section. 
I.    Warranties  as  to  fertilisers  and  feeding  stuffs. 
Power  to  appoint  analyst  and  samplers. 
Power  to  have  fertiliser  or  feeding  stuff  analysed. 
Power  of  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  to 

make  regulations. 
Provisions    as    to    county    and    county    borough 

councils. 
Penalties  for  breach  of  duty  by  seller. 
Penalties  for  tampering. 
Penalty  for  obstructing  official  sampler. 
Institution  of  prosecutions  and  appeals. 
Construction  and  application. 
Application  to  Scotland. 
Application  to  Ireland. 
Repeal. 
Short  title  and  commencement. 


9 
10 

II 

12 

13 

14 


CHAPTER  27. 


An  Act  to  amend  the  law  with  respect  to  the  sale  of 
Agricultural  Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs. 

[4th  August  1906.] 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  King's  most  Excellent  Majesty,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Lords  Spiritual 

155 


Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  1906 

and  Temporal,  and  Commons,  in  this  present  Parlia- 
ment assembled,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  as 
follows : — 


Warranties 
as  to  ferti- 
Jisers  and 
feeding 
stufis. 


Power  to 
appoint 
analyst  and 
samplers. 


1. — (i)  Every  person  who  sells  for  use  as  a  fertiliser 
of  the  soil  any  article  which  has  been  subjected  to  any 
artificial  process  in  the  United  Kingdom,  or  which  has 
been  imported  from  abroad,  shall  give  to  the  purchaser 
an  invoice  stating  the  name  of  the  article  and  what  are 
the  respective  percentages  (if  any)  of  nitrogen,  soluble 
phosphates,  insoluble  phosphates,  and  potash  contained 
in  the  article,  and  the  invoice  shall  have  effect  as  a 
warranty  by  the  seller  that  the  actual  percentages  do 
not  differ  from  those  stated  in  the  invoice  beyond  the 
prescribed  limits  of  error. 

(5)  Any  statement  by  the  seller  of  the  percentages 
of  the  chemical  and  other  ingredients  contained  in  any 
article  sold  for  use  as  a  fertiliser  of  the  soil,  or  of  the 
nutritive  and  other  ingredients  contained  in  any  article 
sold  for  use  as  food  for  cattle  or  poultry,  made  after  the 
commencement  of  this  Act  in  an  invoice  of  such  article, 
or  in  any  circular  or  advertisement  descriptive  of  such 
article,  shall  have  effect  as  a  warranty  by  the  seller. 

(6)  Where  an  article  sold  for  use  as  a  fertiliser  of  the 
soil  or  as  food  for  cattle  or  poultry  consists  of  two  or 
more  ingredients  which  have  been  mixed  at  the  request 
of  the  purchaser,  it  shall  be  a  sufficient  compliance  with 
the  provisions  of  this  section  with  respect  to  percentages 
if  the  invoice  contains  a  statement  of  percentages  with 
respect  to  the  several  ingredients  before  mixture,  and 
a  statement  that  they  have  been  mixed  at  the  request 
of  the  purchaser. 

2. — (i)  The  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  shall 
appoint  a  chief  agricultural  analyst  (hereinafter  referred 
to  as  the  chief  analyst),  who  shall  have  such  remuneration 
out  of  moneys  provided  by  Parliament  as  the  Treasury 
may  assign.  The  chief  analyst  shall  not  while  holding 
his  office  engage  in  private  practice. 

(2)  Every  county  council  shall,  and  the  council  of 
any  county  borough  may,  appoint  an  official  agricultural 

156 


Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  1906 

analyst  (hereinafter  referred  to  as  an  agricultural  analyst) 
and  one  or  more  official  samplers  for  their  county  or 
borough. 

(3)  The  council  of  any  county  or  county  borough  may 
also  appoint  a  deputy  agricultural  analyst,  who  shall,  in 
case  of  illness,  incapacity,  or  absence  of  the  agricultural 
analyst,  have  all  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  agricultural 
analyst,  and  where  the  deputy  acts  this  Act  shall  apply 
as  if  he  were  the  agricultural  analyst, 

(4)  The  appointment  of  an  agricultural  analyst, 
deputy  agricultural  analyst,  or  official  sampler  shall  be 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and 
Fisheries. 

(5)  A  person  whilst  holding  the  office  of  agricultural 
analyst  shall  not  engage  or  be  interested  in  any  trade, 
manufacture,  or  business  connected  with  the  sale  or 
importation  of  articles  used  for  fertilising  the  soil  or  as 
food  for  cattle  or  poultry. 

3. — (i)  Every   purchaser   of   any   article   used   for  Power  to 
fertilising  the  soil  or  as  food  for  cattle  or  poultry  who  ^^y^  ^^^' 
has  taken  a  sample  thereof  within  ten  days  after  delivery  feeding  stu2 
of  the  article  to  him  or  receipt  of  the  invoice  by  him,  analysed, 
whichever  is  later,  shall,  on  payment  of  the  required 
fee,  be  entitled  to  have  the  sample  analysed  by  the 
agricultural  analyst. 

(2)  An  official  sampler  shall  at  the  request  of  the 
purchaser  and  on  payment  by  him  of  the  required  fee, 
and  may  without  any  such  request,  take  a  sample  for 
analysis  by  the  agricultural  analyst  of  any  such  article 
as  aforesaid  which  has  been  sold  or  is  exposed  or  kept  for 
sale,  but,  in  the  case  of  an  article  which  has  been  sold, 
the  sample  shall  be  taken  before  the  expiration  of  ten 
days  after  the  delivery  of  the  article  to  the  purchaser, 
or  the  receipt  of  the  invoice  by  the  purchaser,  whichever 
is  later. 

(3)  Where  a  sample  has  been  taken  with  a  view  to 
the  institution  of  any  civil  or  criminal  preceeding,  the 
person  taking  the  sample  shall  divide  the  sample  into 
three  parts,  and  shall  cause  each  part  to  be  marked, 
sealed,  and  fastened  up,  and  shall  deliver  or  send  by  post 

157 


Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  1906 

two  parts  to  the  agricultural  analyst  and  one  part  to  the 
seller. 

(4)  An  agricultural  analyst  to  whom  a  sample  is 
submitted  for  analysis  under  this  section — 

(a)  if  the  sample  has  not  been  divided  into  parts 
and  the  parts  marked,  sealed,  and  fastened  up 
as  herein-before  mentioned,  shall  send  a  copy 
of  the  certificate  of  his  analysis  to  the  person 
who  submitted  the  sample  for  analysis ;   and 

{b)  if  the  sample  has  been  so  divided  into  parts,  shall 
analyse  one  of  the  parts  of  the  sample  de- 
livered or  sent  to  him  and  retain  the  other,  and 
shall  send  a  certificate  of  his  analysis  in  the 
prescribed  form  and  containing  the  prescribed 
particulars  to  the  person  who  submitted  the 
sample  for  analysis,  and  where  that  person 
is  not  the  purchaser  of  the  article  also  to  the 
purchaser,  and  in  every  case  to  the  seller  and  to 
such  other  persons  (if  any)  as  maybe  prescribed, 
and  shall  report  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
and  Fisheries  in  the  prescribed  manner  the 
result  of  any  such  analysis  :  Provided  that  if 
the  agricultural  analyst  does  not  know  the 
name  and  address  of  the  seller  he  shall  send 
the  certificate  intended  for  the  seller  to  the 
purchaser,  to  be  by  him  forwarded  to  the 
seller. 

(5)  At  the  hearing  of  any  civil  or  criminal  proceeding 
with  respect  to  any  article  a  sample  whereof  has  been 
analysed  in  pursuance  of  this  section,  the  production  of 
a  certificate  of  the  agricultural  analyst,  or,  if  a  sample 
has  been  submitted  to  the  chief  analyst,  then  of  the  chief 
analyst,  shall  be  sufiicient  evidence  of  the  facts  therein 
stated  unless  the  defendant  or  person  charged  requires 
that  the  analyst  or  the  person  who  made  the  analysis  be 
called  as  a  witness  :  Provided  that  this  subsection  shall 
not  apply — 

{a)  where  the  sample  has  been  taken  otherwise  than 
in  the  prescribed  manner  ;  or 

158 


Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  1906 

(b)  where  the  sample  has  not  been  divided  into  parts 

and  the  parts  marked,  sealed,  and  fastened 

up  as  herein-before  mentioned. 

(6)  If  in  any  such  legal  proceeding  (other  than  a 

proceeding  which  cannot  be  instituted  until  an  analysis 

has  been  made  and  a  certificate  given  by  the  chief 

analyst)  either  party  to  the  proceeding  objects  to  the 

certificate  of  the  agricultural  analyst,  the  party  objecting 

shall,  on  payment  of  such  fee  as  may  be  fixed  by  the 

Treasury,  be  entitled  to  have  submitted  to  the  chief 

analyst  the  part  of  the  sample  retained  by  the  agricultural 

analyst,  and  to  have  that  part  analysed  by  the  chief 

analyst  and  to  receive  from  him  a  certificate  of  the  result 

of  his  analysis. 

{7)  Where  a  sample  is,  under  this  section,  sent  for 
analysis  to  the  chief  analyst  or  to  an  agricultural  analyst, 
there  shall  be  sent  with  the  sample  the  invoice  (if  any) 
relating  to  the  article  from  which  the  sample  was  taken, 
or  a  copy  of  the  invoice  or  of  any  prescribed  part  thereof. 

4. — (i)  The  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  may  Power  of 
make  regulations —  Board  of 

(a)  with  respect  to  any  matter  which  under  this  Act  Agriculture 

is  to  be  prescribed  ;  ?o  mlS"'^' 

{b)  as  to  the  quaHfications  to  be  possessed  by  agri-  regulations, 
cultural  analysts,  deputy  agricultural  analysts, 
and  official  samplers  ; 
(c)  as  to  the  manner  in  which  analyses  are  to  be 

made ; 
{d)  as  to  the  manner  in  which  samples  are  to  be 

taken  and  dealt  with  ;  and 
{e)  generally  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  this  Act  into 

execution  : 
Provided  that  nothing  in  this  section  or  in  any  regula- 
tions made  thereunder,  shall  affect  the  right  of  the  pur- 
chaser of  an  article  used  for  fertilising  the  soil,  or  as  food 
for  cattle  or  poultry,  to  have  analysed  by  the  agricultural 
analyst  a  sample  of  an  article  taken  by  him  or  at  his 
request  otherwise  than  in  accordance  with  the  regulations. 
(2)  All  regulations  made  under  this  section  shall  be 

159 


Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  1906 

laid  before  both  Houses  of  Parliament  as  soon  as  may  be 

after  they  are  made. 
Provisions  as       5. — (i)  The  council  of  a  county  or  county  borough 
to  county       j^^^y  concur  with  one  or  more  other  such  councils  in 
borouKh^  ^    making  any  appointment  which  they  are  authorised  to 
councils.         make  under  this  Act,  and  as  to  the  apportionment  in 

the  case  of  such  a  joint  appointment  of  the  expenses 

amongst  the  several  councils. 

(2)  The  council  of  any  county  or  county  borough 
may  contribute  towards  any  expenses  incurred  by  any 
agricultural  body  or  association  in  causing  samples  to 
be  taken  for  analysis  by  the  agricultural  analyst. 

(3)  The  council  of  any  county  or  county  borough 
may  fix  the  fees  payable  in  respect  of  the  making  of  an 
analysis  and  the  taking  of  any  sample  at  the  request  of 
a  purchaser. 

(4)  The  expenses  of  the  council  incurred  in  the 
execution  of  this  Act  shall  be  defrayed,  in  the  case  of  a 
county  council  as  part  of  their  general  expenses,  and  in 
the  case  of  a  county  borough  council  out  of  the  borough 
fund  or  borough  rate. 

Penalties  for  6, — (i)  If  any  person  who  sells  any  article  for  use  as 
breach  of  a  fertiliser  of  the  soil  or  as  food  for  cattle  or  poultry 
duty  by         commits  any  of  the  following  offences,  namely  : — 

(a)  Fails  without  reasonable  excuse  to  give,  on  or 

before  or  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  delivery 

of  the  article,  the  invoice  required  by  this  Act ; 

or 

{b)  Causes  or  permits  any  invoice  or  description  of 

the  article  sold  by  him  to  be  false  in  any  material 

particular  to  the  prejudice  of  the  purchaser ; 

or 

(c)  Sells  for  use  as  food  for  cattle  or  poultry  any  article 

which  contains  any  ingredient  deleterious  to 

cattle  or  poultry,  or  to  which  has  been  added 

any  ingredient  worthless  for  feeding  purposes 

and  not  disclosed  at  the  time  of  the  sale  ; 

he  shall,  without  prejudice  to  any  civil  liabihty,  be  liable, 

on  summary  conviction,  for  a  first  offence  to  a  fine  not 

160 


Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  1906 

exceeding    twenty    pounds,    and    for    any    subsequent 

offence  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  fifty  pounds  : 

Provided  that  a  person  shall  not  be  convicted  of  an 

offence  under  paragraph  (b)  of  this  subsection  if  he 

proves  either 

(i)  that  he  did  not  know,  and  could  not  with  reason- 
able care  have  ascertained,  that  the  invoice  or 
description  was  false  ;  or 
(ii)  that  he  purchased  the  article  sold  with  a  written 
warranty  or  invoice  from  a  person  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  that  that  warranty  or 
invoice  contained  the  false  statement  in  ques- 
tion, and  that  he  had  no  reason  to  beHeve  at 
the  time  when  he  sold  the  article  that  the 
statement  was  false,  and  that  he  sold  the  article 
in  the  state  in  which  it  was  when  he  purchased  it. 

(2)  In  any  proceeding  for  an  offence  under  this 
section  it  shall  be  no  defence  to  allege  that  the  purchaser, 
having  bought  only  for  analysis,  was  not  prejudiced 
by  the  sale. 

(3)  A  prosecution  for  an  offence  under  this  section 
shall  not  be  instituted  except  with  the  consent  of  the 
Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries,  and  the  Board  shall 
not  give  such  consent  until  the  part  of  the  sample  retained 
by  the  agricultural  analyst  has  been  analysed,  and  a 
certificate  of  analysis  given,  by  the  chief  analyst. 

(4)  In  any  prosecution  under  this  section  the  summons 
shall  state  particulars  of  the  offences  alleged,  and  also 
the  name  of  the  prosecutor,  and  shall  not  be  made 
returnable  in  less  time  than  fourteen  days  from  the  day 
on  which  it  is  served,  and  there  must  be  served  therewith 
a  copy  of  any  analyst's  certificate  obtained  on  behalf  of 
the  prosecutor. 

7.  If  any  person  fraudulently —  Penalties  for 

(a)  tampers  with  any  article  so  as  to  procure  that  t3.mpenng. 

any  sample  of  it  taken  under  this  Act  does 
not  correctly  represent  the  article  ;   or 

(b)  tampers  with  any  sample  taken  imder  this  Act ; 
he  shall  be  liable  on  summary  conviction  to  a  fine  not 

161  M 


Penalty  for 
obstructing 
of&cial 
sampler. 


Institution 
of  prosecu- 
tions and 
appeals. 


Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  1906 

exceeding  twenty  pounds,  or  to  imprisonment  for  a  term 
not  exceeding  six  months. 
8.  If— 
(a)  the  owner,  or  the  person  entrusted  for  the  time 
being  with  the  charge  or  custody  of  any 
article  sold  or  intended  to  be  sold  for  use  as 
a  fertiliser  of  the  soil  or  as  food  for  cattle  or 
poultry  refuses  to  allow  an  official  sampler 
to  take  a  sample  of  the  article  for  the  pur- 
pose of  analysis ;  or 
{b)  the  purchaser  of  any  such  article  refuses  to 
give  to  an  official  sampler  the  invoice  of  the 
article  or  a  copy  thereof  or  of  any  prescribed 
part  thereof ; 
he  shall  be  liable  on  summary  conviction  to  a  fine  not 
exceeding  ten  pounds. 

9. — (i)  Subject  to  the  provisions  of  this  Act  as  to  the 
consent  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries,  a 
prosecution  for  an  offence  under  this  Act  may  be  in- 
stituted either  by  the  person  aggrieved,  or  by  the  council 
of  a  coimty  or  borough,  or  by  any  body  or  association 
authorised  in  that  behalf  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
and  Fisheries. 

(2)  A  prosecution  for  an  offence  of  causing  or  per- 
mitting an  invoice  or  description  to  be  false  in  any 
material  particular  shall  not  be  instituted  under  this 
Act— 

(fl)  after  the  expiration  of  three  months  from  the 
date  when  the  invoice  was  received  by  the 
purchaser ;  nor 
{b)  unless  a  sample  for  analysis  has  been  taken,  and 
an  analysis  by  the  agricultural  analyst  has  been 
made,  and  a  certificate  of  analysis  has  been 
given,  in  accordance  with  regulations  made 
under  this  Act : 
But  the  proceedings  may  be  taken  as  well  before  the 
court  having  jurisdiction  in  the  place  where  the  pur- 
chaser of  the  article  to  which  the  invoice  or  description 
relates  resides  or  carries  on  business,  as  before  the  court 

162 


Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  1906 

having  jurisdiction  in  the  place  where  the  invoice  or 
description  was  given. 

(3)  Any  person  aggrieved  by  a  summary  conviction 
under  this  Act  may  appeal  to  a  court  of  quarter  sessions. 

10. — (i)  For  the  purposes  of  this  Act  the  expression  Construction 
"  cattle  "  shall  mean  bulls,  cows,  oxen,  heifers,  calves,  ^/J^^^PP^'^^- 
sheep,  goats,  swine,  and  horses  ;  and  the  expressions 
"  soluble  "  and  "  insoluble  "  shall  respectively  mean 
soluble  and  insoluble  in  water,  or,  if  so  specified  in  the 
invoice,  in  a  solution  of  citric  acid  or  other  solvent  of  the 
prescribed  strength,  and  the  percentage  of  soluble 
phosphates  and  percentage  of  insoluble  phosphates 
mean  respectively  the  percentage  of  tribasic  phosphate 
of  lime  which  has  been,  and  that  which  has  not  been, 
rendered  soluble. 

(2)  This  Act  shall  apply  to  wholesale  as  well  as  retail 
sales. 

11.  In  the  appHcation  of  this  Act  to  Scotland —  Application 

(i)  The  expression  "council  of  any  county  borough"  to  Scotland, 
shall  mean  the  town  council  of  a  burgh,  and 
the  duties  and  powers  of  councils  of  counties 
and  county  boroughs  shall  be  performed  and 
be  exerciseable  in  a  county  by  the  county 
council,  and  in  a  burgh  by  the  town  council, 
and  the  expenses  incurred  by  a  council  in 
the  execution  of  this  Act  shall  be  defrayed 
out  of  a  rate  to  be  levied,  fixed,  and  paid 
in  like  manner  as  the  local  rate  under  the  57  &  53  Vict. 
Diseases  of  Animals  Act,  1894  :  ^'  57* 

(2)  The  expression  "  burgh  "  means  a  burgh  which 

returns  or  contributes  to  return  a  member 

to  ParUament,  not  being  a  burgh  to  which 

section  fourteen  of   the  Local  Government  52  &  53  Vict 

(Scotland)  Act,  1889,  applies  :  c.  50. 

(3)  Penalties  for  offences  under  this  Act  may  be 

recovered  summarily  before  the  sheriff  in 
manner  provided  by  the  Summary  Juris- 
diction Acts,  and  any  person  aggrieved  by 
a  summary  conviction  may  appeal  therefrom  ! 

163 


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"  He  who  will  consent  to  follow  Miss  Jekyll  aright  will  find  that  under 
her  guidance  the  old  walls,  the  stone  steps,  the  rockeries,  the  ponds,  or 
streamlets  of  his  garden  will  presently  blossom  with  all  kinds  of  flowers 
undreamed  of,  and  become  marvels  of  varied  foliage." — Times. 

COLOUR  SCHEMES  FOR  THE  FLOWER  GARDEN 

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planting   plans.     Third  Edition,     I2s.  6d,  net.     By  post,  13J. 

"  Miss  Jekyll  is  one  of  the  most  stimulating  of  those  who  write  about 
what  may  be  called  the  pictorial  side  of  gardening.  .  .  .  She  has  spent  a 
lifetime  in  learning  how  to  grow  and  place  flowers  so  as  to  make  the  most 
beautiful  and  satisfying  effects,  and  she  has  imparted  the  fruits  of  her  ex- 
perience in  these  delightful  pages." — Daily  Mail. 

THE   FRUIT  GARDEN 

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"  Without  any  doubt  the  best  book  of  the  sort  yet  published.  There  is 
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itself — there  Is,  in  fact,  everything  that  any  one  can  need  or  wish  for  in 
order  to  succeed  in  fruit  growing.  The  book  simply  teems  with  illustra- 
tions, diagrams,  and  outlines." — Journal  0/  the  Royal  Horticultural 
Society. 


The   **  Country    Life"    Library    of   Gardening 

— continued 


MY  GARDEN 

By  Eden  Phillpotts.     207  pages.     60  full-page  illustrations. 
Cheap  Edition,  6s.  net.     By  post,  6s.  <,d. 

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like  himself,  have  about  an  acre  of  flower  garden,  and  are  willing  and  com- 
petent to  help  a  gardener  to  make  it  as  rich,  as  harmonious,  and  as  enduring 
as  possible.     His  chapters  on  irises  are  particularly  good." — Woi-tJ. 

ROCK  AND  WATER  GARDENS :   Their  Making  and 
Planting 

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Meyer.     Edited  by  E.  T.  Cook.    6s.  net.     By  post,  6s.  4^. 

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TREES  AND  SHRUBS   FOR    ENGLISH   GARDENS 

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popular  handbook  for  amateurs  and  others  anxious  to  grow  trees  and 
stixwh?,."— Field. 

GARDENS  FOR  SMALL  COUNTRY  HOUSES 

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it  should,  at  any  rate,  inspire  every  one  who  desires  to  have  a  garden  with 
an  ambition  to  make  it  as  beautiful  as  he  can." — Times. 


The  "  Country  Life "  Library 


GARDENING   FOR  BEGINNERS 

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»* 


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I 


The  magnificent  achievements  of  British  Regiments  in  the  Great  War 
have  induced  a  wide  interest  in  their  earlier  history  which  no  books  at 
present  available  can  satisfy.  The  series  of  volumes  now  in  prepara- 
tion is  designed  to  fill  this  need.  A  separate  volume  is  devoted  to  each 
regiment.  A  middle  course  is  steered  between  the  dry-as-dust  technical 
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included  in  an  appendix. 


The  "Country  Life"  Library 


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General  Editor :     P.    ANDERSON    GRAHAM. 


ALREADY    ISSUED. 

OUR    FOOD    SUPPLY:     PERILS    AND 
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